Production of omega-3 fatty acid-enriched broiler chicken meat by the application of nanoencapsultsed flaxseed oil prepared via ultrasonication

Effect of ultrasonication on emulsion formulation, encapsulation efficiency, and oxidative stability of spray dried chia seed oil

Present study was conducted to develop a stable chia oil emulsion using an ultrasound emulsification technique. Whey protein concentrate, gum Arabic, and xanthan gum stabilized layer by layer chia oil emulsion was developed using an electrostatic deposition. Single-layer and multilayer emulsion of chia oil was developed and their stability is compared. Developed emulsions were characterized by viscosity, stability, surface charge, and droplet size. Layer-by-layer emulsion showed the highest stability (98%) among all the formulations developed. Formulated single-layer and double-layer emulsions were spray dried and the respective powders were characterized for bulk density, tapped density, Hausner ratio, Carr's index, moisture content, color values, encapsulation efficiency, peroxide value, XRD, and SEM. Multilayer emulsion-based powder showed better flowability properties. The encapsulation efficiency of multilayer microparticles was found to be 93% with the lowest peroxide value of 1.08 mEq O2/kg fat. XRD diffractogram of the developed microparticles revealed amorphous nature. The developed ultrasound layer-by-layer emulsification technique is an efficient technique for developing chia oil-loaded microparticles.

The physicochemical stability and in vivo gastrointestinal digestion of flaxseed milk: Implication of microwave on flaxseed

The current study was to investigate how microwave on flaxseed affected the physicochemical stability and gastrointestinal digestion of oil bodies (OBs) in flaxseed milk. Flaxseed was subjected to moisture adjustment (30-35 wt%, 24 h), and microwave exposure (0-5 min, 700  W). Microwave treatment slightly weakened the physical stability of flaxseed milk indicated by Turbiscan Stability Index, but there were no visual phase separation during 21 days of storage at 4 °C. Upon microwave treatment, OBs experienced the layer-by-layer encapsulation into loose interface embedding by storage protein-gum polysaccharide complex from bulk phase, resulting in lower viscoelasticity of flaxseed milk. The OBs underwent earlier interface collapse and lipolysis during gastrointestinal digestion, followed by synergistic micellar absorption, faster chylomicrons transport within enterocytes of rats fed flaxseed milk. The accumulation of α-linolenic acid and synergistic conversion into docosapentaenoic and docosahexanoic acids in jejunum tissue were achieved accompanied by the interface remodeling of OBs in flaxseed milk.

Effect of gamma-irradiated honey bee venom on gene expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in mice

In this study, the effect of gamma-irradiated honey bee venom (doses of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 kGy, volume of 0.1 ml and concentration of 0.2 mg/ml) was evaluated on the reduction of allergen compounds and the gene expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in mice. Hence, edema activity induced by the bee venom irradiated at 4, 6, and 8 kGy was reduced, compared with the control group and that irradiated at 2 kGy. In contrast, the paw edema induced by the bee venom irradiated at 8 kGy increased, compared with 4 and 6 kGy. At all the time periods, there was a significant decrease in the gene expression of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and interleukin 10 (IL-10) in the bee venoms irradiated at 4, 6, and 8 kGy, compared with the control group and that irradiated at 2 kGy. In contrast, there was an increase in the gene expression of IFN-γ and IL-6 in the bee venom irradiated at 8 kGy, compared with those irradiated at 4 and 6 kGy. Therefore, gamma irradiation at 4 and 6 kGy reduced the gene expression of cytokines at each time period by decreasing the allergen compounds of honey bee venom.

Nanoemulsion-based approach to preserve muscle food: A review with current knowledge

Muscle foods are regarded as nutritionally dense foods while they are prone to spoilage by action of microorganism and oxidation. Recently, the consumer's preference is mostly toward minimally processed foods as well as preserved with natural preservatives. However, natural extract directly to the food matrix has several drawbacks. Hence development and applications of nanoemulsion has gained importance for the preservation of muscle foods to meet consumer requirements with enhanced food safety. Nanoemulsion utilizes natural extracts at much lower concentration with higher preservative abilities over original components. Nanoemulsions offer protection to the active component from degradation and ensure longer bioavailability. Novel techniques used for formulation of nanoemulsion provide stability to the emulsion with desirable qualities to improve their impacts. The application of nanoemulsion is known to enhance the preservative action of nanoemulsions by improving the microbial safety and oxidative stability in nanoform. This review provides recent updates on different methods used for formulation of nanoemulsions from different sources. Besides, successful application of nanoemulsion derived using natural agents for muscle food preservation and shelf life extension are reviewed. Thus, the application of nanoemulsion to extend shelf life and maintain quality is suggested for muscle foods.

FTIR-PCA Approach on Raw and Thermally Processed Chicken Lipids Stabilized by Nano-Encapsulation in β-Cyclodextrin

This study evaluated similarities/dissimilarities of raw and processed chicken breast and thigh lipids that were complexed by β-cyclodextrin, using a combined FTIR-PCA technique. Lipid fractions were analyzed as non-complexed and β-cyclodextrin-complexed samples via thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry and ATR-FTIR. The lipid complexation reduced the water content to 7.67-8.33%, in comparison with the β-cyclodextrin hydrate (~14%). The stabilities of the complexes and β-cyclodextrin were almost the same. ATR-FTIR analysis revealed the presence of important bands that corresponded to the C=O groups (1743-1744 cm^-1) in both the non-complexed and nano-encapsulated lipids. Furthermore, the bands that corresponded to the vibrations of double bonds corresponding to the natural/degraded (cis/trans) fatty acids in lipids appeared at 3008-3011 and 938-946 cm^-1, respectively. The main FTIR bands that were involved in the discrimination of raw and processed chicken lipids, and of non-complexed and complexed lipids, were evaluated with PCA. The shifting of specific FTIR band wavenumbers had the highest influence, especially vibrations of the α(1→4) glucosidic bond in β-cyclodextrin for PC₁, and CH_2/3 groups from lipids for PC₂. This first approach on β-cyclodextrin nano-encapsulation of chicken lipids revealed the possibility to stabilize poultry fatty components for further applications in various ingredients for the food industry.

Bioactive-loaded nanodelivery systems for the feed and drugs of livestock; purposes, techniques and applications

Advances in animal husbandry and better performance of livestock results in growing demands for feed and its nutrients, bioactive compounds (bioactives), such as vitamins, minerals, proteins, and phenolics, along with drugs/vaccines. To protect the feed bioactives in unintended circumstances, they can be encapsulated to achieve desired efficacy in animal feeding and nanoencapsulation gives more potential for better protection, absorption and targeted delivery of bioactives. This study reviews structures, properties, and methods of nanoencapsulation for animal feedings and relevant drugs. Essential oil (EOs) and plant extracts are mostly encapsulated bioactives and phytochemicals for poultry diets and chitosan is found as most effective nanocarrier to load EOs and plant extracts. Nanoparticles (NPs) and nanocapsules are frequently studied nanocarriers, which are mostly processed by using the ionotropic/ionic gelation. Nanofibers, nanohydrogels and nanoemulsions are not found yet for their application in feed bioactives. These nanocarriers can have an improved protection, stability, and controlled release of feed bioactives which benefits to additional nutrition for the growth of livestock regardless of the low stability and water solubility of bioactives. For ruminants' feeds, nano-minerals, vitamins, phytochemicals, essential fatty acids, and drugs are encapsulated by NPs to facilitate the delivery to target organs through direct penetration, to improve their bioavailability, to generate more efficient absorption in cells and tissues, and protect them from rapid degradation. Furthermore, safety and regulatory issues, as well as advantages and disadvantages of nanoencapsulation application in animal feeds are also discussed. The review shows an accurate design of NPs can largely mask safety issues with straightforward approaches and awareness of safety concerns is fundamental for better designing of nanoencapsulation systems and commercialization. This review gives an insight of understanding and potential of nanoencapsulation in ruminants and poultry feedings to obtain a better bioavailability of the nutrients and bioactives with improved safety and awareness for better designing of nanoencapsulating systems.

Meat Quality of Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus) Fed with Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) as a Protein Source

The most widely used feed ingredients in the world are fishmeal and soybean, which, despite having high-quality digestible protein and good fat content, are considered environmentally unsustainable and increasingly expensive. This issue also involves the guinea pig, a very important animal protein source for people in Andean regions in South America. Here we investigate the substitution of soybean meal with 50% and 100% black soldier fly larvae meal in the guinea pig diet and its effects on meat quality (fatty acid profile, amino acid profile, water-holding capacity, pH, proximal composition, and color). The results showed no differences in the protein content and amino acid profile of meat nor in the n-6:n-3 and P/S ratios, but did show an increment in the desirable fats (mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids) in the guinea pigs fed with black soldier fly larvae meal. All the other analyzed parameters showed no differences among the diets tested. These results suggest that total replacement of soybean meal with black soldier fly larvae meal in guinea pig nutrition is feasible since meat quality was maintained or improved.

Dietary cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion boosts growth and transcriptomes of antioxidant and immune related genes to fight Streptococcus agalactiae infection in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion (CNE) on growth, digestive activities, antioxidant and immune responses and resistance against Streptococcus agalactiae (S. agalactiae) in Nile tilapia. Four experimental diets were formulated containing CNE at levels of 0, 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg diet for 12 weeks. At the end of the experiment, all fish were challenged by S. agalactiae. The results showed that the final body weight was increased in fish groups fed 200 and 300 mg CNE/kg diet by 18.4 and 17.2% with respect to the control group. Moreover, feed conversion ratio and digestive enzymes' activities were improved in groups fed 200 and 300 then 100 mg of dietary CNE/kg diet. Groups fed CNE exhibited a significant increase in serum immune-related parameters when compared with control group. Additionally, the hypocholesterolemic effects was achieved after CNE feeding unlike the control group in a dose dependent manner. With increasing dietary CNE levels, genes expression of cytokines and antioxidant enzymes were upregulated. Less severe adverse clinical symptoms and respectable cumulative mortalities associated with S. agalactiae infection were observed in fish fed CNE. To our knowledge, this study was the first offering a protective effect of CNE against S. agalactiae infection in Nile tilapia with a maximum down-regulation of cylE and hylB virulence genes expression noticed in group fed 300 mg of CNE/kg diet (up to 0.10 and 0.19- fold, respectively). Therefore, the present study recommended that an incorporation of CNE at level of 300 mg/kg diet for Nile tilapia could promote their growth, enhance their immunity and antioxidant status and provide protection against virulent S. agalactiae.

Encapsulated Food Products as a Strategy to Strengthen Immunity Against COVID-19

In December 2019, the severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-a novel coronavirus was identified which was quickly distributed to more than 100 countries around the world. There are currently no approved treatments available but only a few preventive measures are available. Among them, maintaining strong immunity through the intake of functional foods is a sustainable solution to resist the virus attack. For this, bioactive compounds (BACs) are delivered safely inside the body through encapsulated food items. Encapsulated food products have benefits such as high stability and bioavailability, sustained release of functional compounds; inhibit the undesired interaction, and high antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Several BACs such as ω-3 fatty acid, curcumin, vitamins, essential oils, antimicrobials, and probiotic bacteria can be encapsulated which exhibit immunological activity through different mechanisms. These encapsulated compounds can be recommended for use by various researchers, scientists, and industrial peoples to develop functional foods that can improve immunity to withstand the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in the future. Encapsulated BACs, upon incorporation into food, offer increased functionality and facilitate their potential use as an immunity booster. This review paper aims to target various encapsulated food products and their role in improving the immunity system. The bioactive components like antioxidants, minerals, vitamins, polyphenols, omega (ω)-3 fatty acids, lycopene, probiotics, etc. which boost the immunity and may be a potential measure to prevent COVID-19 outbreak were comprehensively discussed. This article also highlights the potential mechanisms; a BAC undergoes, to improve the immune system.

Is oven bag really advantageous in terms of heterocyclic aromatic amines and bisphenol-A? Chicken meat perspective

Herein, the effects of oven bag use belong to different brands on heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA) formation and bisphenol-A (BPA) migration in cooked chicken meats (breast and leg) were investigated. Samples were also analyzed in terms of some qualitative properties (fatty acid profile, water, fat, pH, TBARS, cooking loss). Both oven bag use and meat type had an effect on qualitative properties of the samples. Total HAA amount changed between 6.53 and 42.32 ng/g, and HAA content was higher in breast meat. Total BPA content in samples cooked with oven bag ranged between non-quantified to 63.78 ng/g. Oven bag use reduced the total HAA amount at the rate of 12 - 68.82%, while it caused the BPA migration depends on the brand. However, it can be noted that the HAA and BPA levels were not at a level to pose a risk to human health in any of the samples.

The influence of nanodelivery systems on the antioxidant activity of natural bioactive compounds

Bioactive compounds may lose their antioxidant activity (e.g., phenolic compounds) at elevated temperatures, enhanced oxidative conditions and severe light exposures so they should be protected by various strategies such as nano/microencapsulation methods. Encapsulation technology has been employed as a proper method for using antioxidant ingredients and to provide easy dispersibility of antioxidants in all matrices including food and pharmaceutical products. It can improve the food fortification processes, release of antioxidant ingredients, and extending the shelf-life and bioavailability of them when ingested in the intestine. In this study, our main goal is to have an overview of the influence of nanoencapsulation on the bioactivity and bioavailability, and cellular activities of antioxidant ingredients in different delivery systems. Also, the effect of encapsulation process conditions, storage conditions, carrier wall materials, and release profile on the antioxidant activity of different natural bioactives are explained. Finally, analytical techniques for measuring antioxidant activity of nanoencapsulated ingredients will be covered.

Application of nanoemulsion-based approaches for improving the quality and safety of muscle foods: A comprehensive review

Recently, there has been growing interest in implementing innovative nanoscience-based technologies to improve the health, safety, and quality of food products. A major thrust in this area has been to use nanoemulsions because they can easily be formulated with existing food ingredients and technologies. In particular, oil-in-water nanoemulsions, which consist of small oil droplets (<200 nm) dispersed in water, are being utilized as delivery systems for various hydrophobic substances in foods, including nutrients, nutraceuticals, antioxidants, antimicrobials, colors, and flavors. In this article, we focus on the application of nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for improving the quality, safety, nutritional profile, and sensory attributes of muscle foods, such as meat and fish. The article also critically reviews the formulation and fabrication of food-grade nanoemulsions, their potential benefits and limitations in muscle food systems.

Preparation of high-quality concentrated fragrance flaxseed oil by steam explosion pretreatment technology

In this study, flaxseed was pretreated by steam explosion technology and subsequently pressed to prepare flaxseed oil. GC, UPLC, HPLC, and GC-MS techniques were used to analyze the quality characteristics of the prepared flaxseed oil. These included the food safety risk indices, micronutrient components, and oxidative stability. The effects of different steam explosion pressures on the quality characteristics and relative volatile components of flaxseed oil were also investigated. The results revealed that steam explosion pretreatment technology could significantly increase the oil yield, improve micronutrient content, and strengthen the oxidation stability of the product. Moreover, the food safety risk indices (e.g., benzopyrene) were controlled within a reasonable range, while the fatty acid content remained almost unchanged. Notably, the relative pyrazine content in the total volatile components of flaxseed oil was 68.25% when the steam explosion pressure reached 1.2 MPa. This was considered as the main factor that contributed to the unique concentrated fragrance of the produced flaxseed oil. To prove the superiority of the steam explosion pretreatment, we compared this technique with traditional high-temperature roasting and popular microwave pretreatment techniques. The results revealed that flaxseed oil prepared by steam explosion pretreatment displayed the best quality characteristics and most concentrated fragrance. Thus, steam explosion technology shows great potential for application to produce high-quality concentrated fragrance flaxseed oil. This study provides significant reference and guidance for the preparation process of flaxseed oil.