Vanadium(V) tris-3,5-di-tert-butylcatecholato complex: Links between speciation and anti-proliferative activity in human pancreatic cancer cells

Vanadium(V) Pyridine-Containing Schiff Base Catecholate Complexes are Lipophilic, Redox-Active and Selectively Cytotoxic in Glioblastoma (T98G) Cells

Two new series of complexes with pyridine-containing Schiff bases, [VV O(SALIEP)L] and [VV O(Cl-SALIEP)L] (SALIEP=N-(salicylideneaminato)-2-(2-aminoethylpyridine; Cl-SALIEP=N-(5-chlorosalicylideneaminato)-2-(2-aminoethyl)pyridine, L=catecholato(2-) ligand) have been synthesized. Characterization by 1 H and 51 V NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopies confirmed that: 1) most complexes form two major geometric isomers in solution, and [VV O(SALIEP)(DTB)] (DTB=3,5-di-tert-butylcatecholato(2-)) forms two isomers that equilibrate in solution; and 2) tert-butyl substituents were necessary to stabilize the reduced VIV species (EPR spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry). The pyridine moiety within the Schiff base ligands significantly changed their chemical properties with unsubstituted catecholate ligands compared with the parent HSHED (N-(salicylideneaminato)-N'-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1,2-ethanediamine) Schiff base complexes. Immediate reduction to VIV occurred for the unsubstituted-catecholato VV complexes on dissolution in DMSO. By contrast, the pyridine moiety within the Schiff base significantly improved the hydrolytic stability of [VV O(SALIEP)(DTB)] compared with [VV O(HSHED)(DTB)]. [VV O(SALIEP)(DTB)] had moderate stability in cell culture media. There was significant cellular uptake of the intact complex by T98G (human glioblastoma) cells and very good anti-proliferative activity (IC50 6.7±0.9 μM, 72 h), which was approximately five times higher than for the non-cancerous human cell line, HFF-1 (IC50 34±10 μM). This made [VV O(SALIEP)(DTB)] a potential drug candidate for the treatment of advanced gliomas by intracranial injection.

Substitution Kinetics, Albumin and Transferrin Affinities, and Hypoxia All Affect the Biological Activities of Anticancer Vanadium(V) Complexes

Limited stability of most transition-metal complexes in biological media has hampered their medicinal applications but also created a potential for novel cancer treatments, such as intratumoral injections of cytotoxic but short-lived anticancer drugs. Two related V(V) complexes, [VO(Hshed)(dtb)] (1) and [VO(Hshed)(cat)] (2), where H2shed = N-(salicylideneaminato)-N'-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1,2-ethanediamine, H2dtb = 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol, and H2cat = 1,2-catechol, decomposed within minutes in cell culture medium at 310 K (t1/2 = 43 and 9 s for 1 and 2, respectively). Despite this, both complexes showed high antiproliferative activities in triple-negative human breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cells, but the mechanisms of their activities were radically different. Complex 1 formed noncovalent adducts with human serum albumin, rapidly entered cells via passive diffusion, and was nearly as active in a short-term treatment (IC50 = 1.9 ± 0.2 μM at 30 min) compared with a long-term treatment (IC50 = 1.3 ± 0.2 μM at 72 h). The activity of 1 decreased about 20-fold after its decomposition in cell culture medium for 30 min at 310 K. Complex 2 showed similar activities (IC50 ≈ 12 μM at 72 h) in both fresh and decomposed solutions and was inactive in a short-term treatment. The activity of 2 was mainly due to the reactions among V(V) decomposition products, free catechol, and O2 in cell culture medium. As a result, the activity of 1 was less sensitive than that of 2 to the effects of hypoxic conditions that are characteristic of solid tumors and to the presence of apo-transferrin that acts as a scavenger of V(V/IV) decomposition products in blood serum. In summary, complex 1, but not 2, is a suitable candidate for further development as an anticancer drug delivered via intratumoral injections. These results demonstrate the importance of fine-tuning the ligand properties for the optimization of biological activities of metal complexes.

In Vitro and In Vivo Biological Activities of Dipicolinate Oxovanadium(IV) Complexes

The work is focused on anticancer properties of dipicolinate (dipic)-based vanadium(IV) complexes [VO(dipic)(N^∩N)] bearing different diimines (2-(1H-imidazol-2-yl)pyridine, 2-(2-pyridyl)benzimidazole, 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione, 1,10-phenanthroline, and 2,2'-bipyridine), as well as differently 4,7-substituted 1,10-phenanthrolines. The antiproliferative effect of V(IV) systems was analyzed in different tumors (A2780, HCT116, and HCT116-DoxR) and normal (primary human dermal fibroblasts) cell lines, revealing a high cytotoxic effect of [VO(dipic)(N^∩N)] with 4,7-dimethoxy-phen (5), 4,7-diphenyl-phen (6), and 1,10-phenanthroline (8) against HCT116-DoxR cells. The cytotoxicity differences between these complexes can be correlated with their different internalization by HCT116-DoxR cells. Worthy of note, these three complexes were found to (i) induce cell death through apoptosis and autophagy pathways, namely, through ROS production; (ii) not to be cytostatic; (iii) to interact with the BSA protein; (iv) do not promote tumor cell migration or a pro-angiogenic capability; (v) show a slight in vivo anti-angiogenic capability, and (vi) do not show in vivo toxicity in a chicken embryo.

A Series of Non-Oxido VIV Complexes of Dibasic ONS Donor Ligands: Solution Stability, Chemical Transformations, Protein Interactions, and Antiproliferative Activity

A series of mononuclear non-oxido vanadium(IV) complexes, [V^IV(L^1-4)₂] (1-4), featuring tridentate bi-negative ONS chelating S-alkyl/aryl-substituted dithiocarbazate ligands H₂L^1-4, are reported. All the synthesized non-oxido V^IV compounds are characterized by elemental analysis, spectroscopy (IR, UV-vis, and EPR), ESI-MS, as well as electrochemical techniques (cyclic voltammetry). Single-crystal X-ray diffraction studies of 1-3 reveal that the mononuclear non-oxido V^IV complexes show distorted octahedral (1 and 2) or trigonal prismatic (3) arrangement around the non-oxido V^IV center. EPR and DFT data indicate the coexistence of mer and fac isomers in solution, and ESI-MS results suggest a partial oxidation of [V^IV(L^1-4)₂] to [V^V(L^1-4)₂]⁺ and [V^VO₂(L^1-4)]^-; therefore, all these three complexes are plausible active species. Complexes 1-4 interact with bovine serum albumin (BSA) with a moderate binding affinity, and docking calculations reveal non-covalent interactions with different regions of BSA, particularly with Tyr, Lys, Arg, and Thr residues. In vitro cytotoxic activity of all complexes is assayed against the HT-29 (colon cancer) and HeLa (cervical cancer) cells and compared with the NIH-3T3 (mouse embryonic fibroblast) normal cell line by MTT assay and DAPI staining. The results suggest that complexes 1-4 are cytotoxic in nature and induce cell death in the cancer cell lines by apoptosis and that a mixture of V^IV, V^V, and V^VO₂ species could be responsible for the biological activity.

Vanadium Chloro-Substituted Schiff Base Catecholate Complexes are Reducible, Lipophilic, Water Stable, and Have Anticancer Activities

A hydrophobic Schiff base catecholate vanadium complex was recently discovered to have anticancer properties superior to cisplatin and suited for intratumoral administration. This [VO(HSHED)(DTB)] complex, where HSHED is N-(salicylideneaminato)-N'-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1,2-ethanediamine and the non-innocent catecholato ligand is di-t-butylcatecholato (DTB), has higher stability compared to simpler catecholato complexes. Three new chloro-substituted Schiff base complexes of vanadium(V) with substituted catecholates as co-ligands were synthesized for comparison with their non-chlorinated Schiff base vanadium complexes, and their properties were characterized. Up to four geometric isomers for each complex were identified in organic solvents using ⁵¹V and ¹H NMR spectroscopies. Spectroscopy was used to characterize the structure of the major isomer in solution and to demonstrate that the observed isomers are exchanged in solution. All three chloro-substituted Schiff base vanadium(V) complexes with substituted catecholates were also characterized by UV-vis spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and electrochemistry. Upon testing in human glioblastoma multiforme (T98g) cells as an in vitro model of brain gliomas, the most sterically hindered, hydrophobic, and stable compound [t_1/2 (298 K) = 15 min in cell medium] was better than the two other complexes (IC₅₀ = 4.1 ± 0.5 μM DTB, 34 ± 7 μM 3-MeCat, and 19 ± 2 μM Cat). Furthermore, upon aging, the complexes formed less toxic decomposition products (IC₅₀ = 9 ± 1 μM DTB, 18 ± 3 μM 3-MeCat, and 8.1 ± 0.6 μM Cat). The vanadium complexes with the chloro-substituted Schiff base were more hydrophobic, more hydrolytically stable, more easily reduced compared to their corresponding parent counterparts, and the most sterically hindered complex of this series is only the second non-innocent vanadium Schiff base complex with a potent in vitro anticancer activity that is an order of magnitude more potent than cisplatin under the same conditions.

Toxicity of Nanocomplexes Containing Gadolinium Orthovanadate Nanoparticles and Cholesterol

Previous studies have shown the ability of nanocomplexes (NCs), which consist of nanoparticles (NPs) of orthovanadates of rare earth metals (GdYVO₄:Eu³⁺) and cholesterol, to inhibit the growth of Ehrlich's ascites carcinoma (EAC). However, the biosafety of these NCs remains unclear. Our objective was to investigate the acute and subchronic toxicity of NCs. NCs were administered to BALB/c mice in NPs concentration of 5.9; 29.5; 59.1; and 118.2 mg/kg. Acute toxicity was induced by a single administration of NCs, subchronic-by repeated daily administration of NCs for 14 days. On day 15 and on day 31 for acute and subchronic toxicity, respectively, the percentage of animal survival, body weight, condition of visceral organs, and activities of γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PDH) were determined. It was found that administration of NCs in the concentration of 5.9 mg/kg and 29.5 mg/kg of NPs did not influence on survival of animals or have a negative impact on their performance status, morphological and quantitative characteristics of visceral organs, and activities of the GGT and G-6-PDH in the liver. For acute toxicity, the semi-lethal dose (LD₅₀) of nanocomplexes was determined (118.2 mg/kg of NPs). As to subchronic toxicity, it was found that repeated (for 14 days) administration of NCs containing 59.1 mg/kg of NPs decrease survival of animals to 50%. The coefficient of accumulation (C_acum = 7) indicates the low accumulative ability of NCs upon long-term use. Thus, from the LD₅₀ and accumulation coefficient, NCs can be referred to as low-toxic substances and used in conditionally therapeutic doses in oncological practice to develop nanostructured formulations of drugs.

Advantageous Reactivity of Unstable Metal Complexes: Potential Applications of Metal-Based Anticancer Drugs for Intratumoral Injections

Injections of highly cytotoxic or immunomodulating drugs directly into the inoperable tumor is a procedure that is increasingly applied in the clinic and uses established Pt-based drugs. It is advantageous for less stable anticancer metal complexes that fail administration by the standard intravenous route. Such hydrophobic metal-containing complexes are rapidly taken up into cancer cells and cause cell death, while the release of their relatively non-toxic decomposition products into the blood has low systemic toxicity and, in some cases, may even be beneficial. This concept was recently proposed for V(V) complexes with hydrophobic organic ligands, but it can potentially be applied to other metal complexes, such as Ti(IV), Ga(III) and Ru(III) complexes, some of which were previously unsuccessful in human clinical trials when administered via intravenous injections. The potential beneficial effects include antidiabetic, neuroprotective and tissue-regenerating activities for V(V/IV); antimicrobial activities for Ga(III); and antimetastatic and potentially immunogenic activities for Ru(III). Utilizing organic ligands with limited stability under biological conditions, such as Schiff bases, further enhances the tuning of the reactivities of the metal complexes under the conditions of intratumoral injections. However, nanocarrier formulations are likely to be required for the delivery of unstable metal complexes into the tumor.

Exploring Growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis Treated with Anticarcinogenic Vanadium Compounds

A major problem with patient treatments using anticancer compounds is accompanying bacterial infections, which makes more information on how such compounds impact bacterial growth desirable. In the following study, we investigated the growth effects of an anticancerous non-toxic Schiff base oxidovanadium(V) complex (N-(salicylideneaminato)-N′-(2-hydroxyethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine) coordinated to the 3,5-di-tert-butylcatecholato ligand on a representative bacterium, Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smeg). We prepared the Schiff base V-complexes as reported previously and selected a few complexes to develop a V-complex series. Biological studies of M. smeg growth inhibition were complemented by spectroscopic studies using UV-Vis spectrophotometry and NMR spectroscopy to determine which complexes were intact under biologically relevant conditions. We specifically chose to examine (1) the growth effects of Schiff base oxidovanadium complexes coordinated to a catechol, (2) the growth effects of respective free catecholates on M. smeg, and (3) to identify complexes where the metal coordination complex was more potent than the ligand alone under biological conditions. Results from these studies showed that the observed effects of Schiff base V-catecholate complex are a combination of catechol properties including toxicity, hydrophobicity, and sterics.

Mo(VI) Potential Metallodrugs: Explaining the Transport and Cytotoxicity by Chemical Transformations

The transport and cytotoxicity of molybdenum-based drugs have been explained with the concept of chemical transformation, a very important idea in inorganic medicinal chemistry that is often overlooked in the interpretation of the biological activity of metal-containing systems. Two monomeric, [MoO₂(L¹)(MeOH)] (1) and [MoO₂(L²)(EtOH)] (2), and two mixed-ligand dimeric Mo^VIO₂ species, [{MoO₂(L^1-2)}₂(μ-4,4'-bipy)] (3-4), were synthesized and characterized. The structures of the solid complexes were solved through SC-XRD, while their transformation in water was clarified by UV-vis, ESI-MS, and DFT. In aqueous solution, 1-4 lead to the penta-coordinated [MoO₂(L^1-2)] active species after the release of the solvent molecule (1 and 2) or removal of the 4,4'-bipy bridge (3 and 4). [MoO₂(L^1-2)] are stable in solution and react with neither serum bioligand nor cellular reductants. The binding affinity of 1-4 toward HSA and DNA were evaluated through analytical and computational methods and in both cases a non-covalent interaction is expected. Furthermore, the in vitro cytotoxicity of the complexes was also determined and flow cytometry analysis showed the apoptotic death of the cancer cells. Interestingly, μ-4,4'-bipy bridged complexes 3 and 4 were found to be more active than monomeric 1 and 2, due to the mixture of species generated, that is [MoO₂(L^1-2)] and the cytotoxic 4,4'-bipy released after their dissociation. Since in the cytosol neither the reduction of Mo^VI to Mo^V/IV takes place nor the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through Fenton-like reactions of 1-4 with H₂O₂ occurs, the mechanism of cytotoxicity should be attributable to the direct interaction with DNA that happens with a minor-groove binding which results in cell death through an apoptotic mechanism.

Ternary Copper Complex of L-Glutamine and Phenanthroline as Counterions of Cyclo-Tetravanadate Anion: Experimental–Theoretical Characterization and Potential Antineoplastic Activity

Over the last decade, therapeutic metallodrugs have become substantially effective in the treatment of cancer. Thus, developing new effective anticancer drugs is a significant research area against the continuing increase in cancers worldwide. In the search for heterobimetallic prodrugs containing V/Cu, a new cyclo-tetravanadate was synthesized and characterized by UV-visible and FTIR spectroscopies and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. L-Glutamine and 1,10-phenanthroline allow the crystallization of [Cu(L-Gln)(phen)(H2O)]4[V4O12]∙8(H2O) (1), in which the cyclo-tetravanadate acts as a free anion. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were carried out to characterize the frontier molecular orbitals and molecular electrostatic potential. Global reactivity indexes were calculated and analyzed to give insight into the cyclo-tetravanadate anion and complex counterions interactions. Also, using Bader’s theory of atoms in molecules (AIM), non-covalent interactions were analyzed. Docking analysis with the Casiopeina-like complex resulting from the hydrolysis of compound 1 provided insights into these complex potential anticancer activities by interacting with DNA/tRNA via H-bonds and hydrophobic interactions. The release of both components could act together or separately, acting as prodrugs with potential dual antineoplastic activities.

Kinetic Studies of Sodium and Metforminium Decavanadates Decomposition and In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Insulin- Like Activity

The kinetics of the decomposition of 0.5 and 1.0 mM sodium decavanadate (NaDeca) and metforminium decavanadate (MetfDeca) solutions were studied by 51V NMR in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) medium (pH 7.4) at 25 °C. The results showed that decomposition products are orthovanadate [H2VO4]− (V1) and metavanadate species like [H2V2O7]2− (V2), [V4O12]4− (V4) and [V5O15]5− (V5) for both compounds. The calculated half-life times of the decomposition reaction were 9 and 11 h for NaDeca and MetfDeca, respectively, at 1 mM concentration. The hydrolysis products that presented the highest rate constants were V1 and V4 for both compounds. Cytotoxic activity studies using non-tumorigenic HEK293 cell line and human liver cancer HEPG2 cells showed that decavanadates compounds exhibit selectivity action toward HEPG2 cells after 24 h. The effect of vanadium compounds (8–30 μM concentration) on the protein expression of AKT and AMPK were investigated in HEPG2 cell lines, showing that NaDeca and MetfDeca compounds exhibit a dose-dependence increase in phosphorylated AKT. Additionally, NaDeca at 30 µM concentration stimulated the glucose cell uptake moderately (62%) in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Finally, an insulin release assay in βTC-6 cells (30 µM concentration) showed that sodium orthovanadate (MetV) and MetfDeca enhanced insulin release by 0.7 and 1-fold, respectively.

Synthesis, Crystal Structure, and Computational Methods of Vanadium and Copper Compounds as Potential Drugs for Cancer Treatment

Transition metal-based compounds have shown promising uses as therapeutic agents. Among their unique characteristics, these compounds are suitable for interaction with specific biological targets, making them important potential drugs to treat various diseases. Copper compounds, of which Casiopeinas® are an excellent example, have shown promising results as alternatives to current cancer therapies, in part because of their intercalative properties with DNA. Vanadium compounds have been extensively studied for their pharmacological properties and application, mostly in diabetes, although recently, there is a growing interest in testing their activity as anti-cancer agents. In the present work, two compounds, [Cu(Metf)(bipy)Cl]Cl·2H2O and [Cu(Impy)(Gly)(H2O)]VO3, were obtained and characterized by visible and FTIR spectroscopies, single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and theoretical methods. The structural and electronic properties of the compounds were calculated through the density functional theory (DFT) using the Austin-Frisch-Petersson functional with dispersion APFD, and the 6-311 + G(2d,p) basis set. Non-covalent interactions were analyzed using Hirshfeld surface analysis (HSA) and atom in molecules analysis (AIM). Additionally, docking analysis to test DNA/RNA interactions with the Casiopeina-like complexes were carried out. The compounds provide metals that can interact with critical biological targets. In addition, they show interesting non-covalent interactions that are responsible for their supramolecular arrangements.

The liposomal delivery of hydrophobic oxidovanadium complexes imparts highly effective cytotoxicity and differentiating capacity in neuroblastoma tumour cells

Oxidovanadium complexes with organic ligands are well known to have cytotoxic or differentiating capabilities against a range of cancer cell types. Their limited use in clinical testing though has resulted largely from uncertainties about the long-term toxicities of such complexes, due in part to the speciation to vanadate ions in the circulation. We hypothesised that more highly stable complexes, delivered using liposomes, may provide improved opportunities for oxidovanadium applications against cancer. In this study we sourced specifically hydrophobic forms of oxidovanadium complexes with the explicit aim of demonstrating liposomal encapsulation, bioavailability in cultured neuroblastoma cells, and effective cytotoxic or differentiating activity. Our data show that four ethanol-solubilised complexes with amine bisphenol, aminoalcohol bisphenol or salan ligands are equally or more effective than a previously used complex bis(maltolato)oxovanadium(V) in neuroblastoma cell lines. Moreover, we show that one of these complexes can be stably incorporated into cationic liposomes where it retains very good bioavailability, apparently low speciation and enhanced efficacy compared to ethanol delivery. This study provides the first proof-of-concept that stable, hydrophobic oxidovanadium complexes retain excellent cellular activity when delivered effectively to cancer cells with nanotechnology. This offers the improved prospect of applying oxidovanadium-based drugs in vivo with increased stability and reduced off-target toxicity.

New VIV, VIVO, VVO, and VVO2 Systems: Exploring their Interconversion in Solution, Protein Interactions, and Cytotoxicity

The synthesis and characterization of one oxidoethoxidovanadium(V) [V^VO(L¹)(OEt)] (1) and two nonoxidovanadium(IV) complexes, [V^IV(L^2-3)₂] (2 and 3), with aroylhydrazone ligands incorporating naphthalene moieties, are reported. The synthesized oxido and nonoxido vanadium complexes are characterized by various physicochemical techniques, and their molecular structures are solved by single crystal X-ray diffraction (SC-XRD). This revealed that in 1 the geometry around the vanadium atom corresponds to a distorted square pyramid, with a O₄N coordination sphere, whereas that of the two nonoxido V^IV complexes 2 and 3 corresponds to a distorted trigonal prismatic arrangement with a O₄N₂ coordination sphere around each "bare" vanadium center. In aqueous solution, the V^VO moiety of 1 undergoes a change to V^VO₂ species_, yielding [V^VO₂(L¹)]^- (1'), while the nonoxido V^IV-compounds 2 and 3 are partly converted into their corresponding V^IVO complexes, [V^IVO(L^2-3)(H₂O)] (2' and 3'). Interaction of these V^VO₂, V^IVO, and V^IV systems with two model proteins, ubiquitin (Ub) and lysozyme (Lyz), is investigated through docking approaches, which suggest the potential binding sites: the interaction is covalent for species 2' and 3', with the binding to Glu16, Glu18, and Asp21 for Ub, and His15 for Lyz, and it is noncovalent for species 1', 2, and 3, with the surface residues of the proteins. The ligand precursors and complexes are also evaluated for their in vitro antiproliferative activity against ovarian (A2780) and prostate (PC3) human cancer cells and in normal fibroblasts (V79) to check the selectivity of the compounds for cancer cells.

A Short-Lived but Highly Cytotoxic Vanadium(V) Complex as a Potential Drug Lead for Brain Cancer Treatment by Intratumoral Injections

The chemistry and short lifetimes of metal-based anti-cancer drugs can be turned into an advantage for direct injections into tumors, which then allow the use of highly cytotoxic drugs. The release of their less toxic decomposition products into the blood will lead to decreased toxicity and can even have beneficial effects. We present a ternary V^V complex, 1 ([VOL¹ L² ], where L¹ is N-(salicylideneaminato)-N'-(2-hydroxyethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine and L² is 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol), which enters cells intact to induce high cytotoxicity in a range of human cancer cells, including T98g (glioma multiforme), while its decomposition products in cell culture medium were ≈8-fold less toxic. 1 was 12-fold more toxic than cisplatin in T98g cells and 6-fold more toxic in T98g cells than in a non-cancer human cell line, HFF-1. Its high toxicity in T98g cells was retained in the presence of physiological concentrations of the two main metal-binding serum proteins, albumin and transferrin. These properties favor further development of 1 for brain cancer treatment by intratumoral injections.

Synthesis and Experimental-Computational Characterization of a Copper/Vanadium Compound with Potential Anticancer Activity

Cancer represents a major worldwide public health problem. While significant advances in different fronts are being made to combat the disease, the development of new metal-based drugs with cytotoxic capabilities is of high relevance. This work presents a heterobimetallic molecule comprising two moieties with a structure similar to Casiopeina II-gly. One of them has a cyclotetravanadate anion that functions as an inorganic bridge coordinating two Cu (II) atoms resulting in a hexanuclear [Cu(phen)(Gly)-µ2-V4O12-Cu(phen)(Gly)]2− complex, which is counterbalanced by two isolated [Cu(phen)(Gly)(H2O)]1+ cations. Ten water molecules arranged in two sets of five-member chains also play an essential role in the 3D supramolecular structure of the compound. The molecule was designed to provide Cu and V, two metals with proven anticancer capabilities in the same molecular structure. The compound was synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis; visible, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopies; 51V Nuclear Magnetic Resonance; cyclic voltammetry; and monocrystalline X-ray diffraction. The structural, spectroscopic, and electronic properties of the compound were calculated through the density functional theory (DFT) using the Minnesota functional M06-2X and the Def2TZVP/LANL2TZ(f) basis sets with an effective core potential (ECP) for metals. Noncovalent interactions were analyzed using a natural population analysis (NPA) and Hirshfeld surfaces. The compound upon dissociation provides two metals that can interact with important biological targets in a variety of cancer cell models.

Ruthenium(II)-Arene Thiocarboxylates: Identification of a Stable Dimer Selectively Cytotoxic to Invasive Breast Cancer Cells

Ru^II -arene complexes provide a versatile scaffold for novel anticancer drugs. Seven new Ru^II -arene-thiocarboxylato dimers were synthesized and characterized. Three of the complexes (2 a, b and 5) showed promising antiproliferative activities in MDA-MB-231 (human invasive breast cancer) cells, and were further tested in a panel of fifteen cancerous and noncancerous cell lines. Complex 5 showed moderate but remarkably selective activity in MDA-MB-231 cells (IC₅₀ =39±4 μm Ru). Real-time proliferation studies showed that 5 induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells but had no effect in A549 (human lung cancer, epithelial) cells. By contrast, 2 a and b showed moderate antiproliferative activity, but no apoptosis, in either cell line. Selective cytotoxicity of 5 in aggressive, mesenchymal-like MDA-MB-231 cells over many common epithelial cancer cell lines (including noninvasive breast cancer MCF-7) makes it an attractive lead compound for the development of specifically antimetastatic Ru complexes with low systemic toxicity.