Dimethyl fumarate reduces oxidative stress, inflammation and fat deposition by modulation of Nrf2, SREBP-1c and NF-κB signaling in HFD fed mice

Dimethyl fumarate restores Ca2+ dyshomeostasis through activation of the SIRT1 signal to treat nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterized by an excessive lipid accumulation in the liver, with a global prevalence of approximately 25 %. While early-stage steatosis is reversible and can be intervened upon, it has the potential to progress to some serious complications, including cirrhosis and even liver cancer. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF), a derivative of fumaric acid shows promise in intervening in certain diseases. However, the precise effect and underlying mechanism of DMF on hepatic steatosis remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that DMF mitigates hepatic steatosis in mice subjected to high-fat/high-cholesterol (HFHC) diets. Meanwhile, our in vivo and in vitro results showed that DMF relieves lipid accumulation, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Mechanically, our findings revealed that the effect of DMF on reducing lipid accumulation is linked to the restoration of Ca2+ homeostasis. Furthermore, we found that activation of the SIRT1 signal by DMF plays an important role in correcting the mishandling of the Ca2+ signal, and knockdown of SIRT1 expression reverses the beneficial role of DMF PA-incubated AML12 cells. In conclusion, our results suggested DMF's amelioration of hepatic steatosis is related to the activation of SIRT1-mediated Ca2+ signaling.

Beneficial Effect of Fingolimod in a Lafora Disease Mouse Model by Preventing Reactive Astrogliosis-Derived Neuroinflammation and Brain Infiltration of T-lymphocytes

Lafora disease (LD; OMIM#254780) is a rare, devastating, and fatal form of progressive myoclonus epilepsy that affects young adolescents and has no treatment yet. One of the hallmarks of the disease is the accumulation of aberrant poorly branched forms of glycogen (polyglucosans, PGs) in the brain and peripheral tissues. The current hypothesis is that this accumulation is causative of the pathophysiology of the disease. Another hallmark of LD is the presence of neuroinflammation. We have recently reported the presence of reactive glia-derived neuroinflammation in LD mouse models and defined the main inflammatory pathways that operate in these mice, mainly TNF and IL-6 signaling pathways. In addition, we described the presence of infiltration of peripheral immune cells in the brain parenchyma, which could cooperate and aggravate the neuroinflammatory landscape of LD. In this work, we have checked the beneficial effect of two compounds with the capacity to ameliorate neuroinflammation and reduce leukocyte infiltration into the brain, namely fingolimod and dimethyl fumarate. Our results indicate a beneficial effect of fingolimod in reducing reactive astrogliosis-derived neuroinflammation and T-lymphocyte infiltration, which correlated with the improved behavioral performance of the treated Epm2b-/- mice. On the contrary, dimethyl fumarate, although it was able to reduce reactive astrogliosis, was less effective in preventing neuroinflammation and T-lymphocyte infiltration and in modifying behavioral tests.

Dimethyl fumarate attenuates cholestatic liver injury by activating the NRF2 and FXR pathways and suppressing NLRP3/GSDMD signaling in mice

The progression of cholestasis is characterized by excessive accumulation of bile acids (BAs) in the liver, which leads to oxidative stress (OS), inflammation and liver injury. There are currently limited treatments for cholestasis. Therefore, appropriate drugs for cholestasis treatment need to be developed. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) has been widely used in the treatment of various diseases and exerts antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, but its effect on cholestatic liver disease remains unclarified. We fed mice 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine or cholic acid to induce cholestatic liver injury and treated these mice with DMF to evaluate its protective ability. Alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and total liver BAs were assessed as indicators of liver function. The levels of OS, liver inflammation, transporters and metabolic enzymes were also measured. DMF markedly altered the relative ALT and AST levels and enhanced the liver antioxidant capacity. DMF regulated the MST/NRF2 signaling pathway to protect against OS and reduced liver inflammation through the NLRP3/GSDMD signaling pathway. DMF also regulated the levels of BA transporters by promoting FXR protein expression. These findings provide new strategies for the treatment of cholestatic liver disorders.

Neuroprotective effects of dimethyl fumarate against manic-like behavior induced by ketamine in rats

Medications for treating bipolar disorder (BD) are limited and can cause side effects if used chronically. Therefore, efforts are being made to use new agents in the control and treatment of BD. Considering the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of dimethyl fumarate (DMF), this study was performed to examine the role of DMF on ketamine (KET)-induced manic-like behavior (MLB) in rats. Forty-eight rats were randomly divided into eight groups, including three groups of healthy rats: normal, lithium chloride (LiCl) (45 mg/kg, p.o.), and DMF (60 mg/kg, p.o.), and five groups of MLB rats: control, LiCl, and DMF (15, 30, and 60 mg/kg, p.o.), which received KET at a dose of 25 mg/kg, i.p. The levels of total sulfhydryl groups (total SH), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), nitric oxide (NO), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes including catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HPC), were measured. DMF prevented hyperlocomotion (HLM) induced by KET. It was found that DMF could inhibit the increase in the levels of TBARS, NO, and TNF-α in the HPC and PFC of the brain. Furthermore, by examining the amount of total SH and the activity of SOD, GPx, and CAT, it was found that DMF could prevent the reduction of the level of each of them in the brain HPC and PFC. DMF pretreatment improved the symptoms of the KET model of mania by reducing HLM, oxidative stress, and modulating inflammation.

Electromagnetic fields ameliorate hepatic lipid accumulation and oxidative stress: potential role of CaMKKβ/AMPK/SREBP-1c and Nrf2 pathways

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease worldwide, and is related to disturbed lipid metabolism and redox homeostasis. However, a definitive drug treatment has not been approved for this disease. Studies have found that electromagnetic fields (EMF) can ameliorate hepatic steatosis and oxidative stress. Nevertheless, the mechanism remains unclear.

METHODS

NAFLD models were established by feeding mice a high-fat diet. Simultaneously, EMF exposure is performed. The effects of the EMF on hepatic lipid deposition and oxidative stress were investigated. Additionally, the AMPK and Nrf2 pathways were analysed to confirm whether they were activated by the EMF.

RESULTS

Exposure to EMF decreased the body weight, liver weight and serum triglyceride (TG) levels and restrained the excessive hepatic lipid accumulation caused by feeding the HFD. The EMF boosted CaMKKβ protein expression, activated AMPK phosphorylation and suppressed mature SREBP-1c protein expression. Meanwhile, the activity of GSH-Px was enhanced following an increase in nuclear Nrf2 protein expression by PEMF. However, no change was observed in the activities of SOD and CAT. Consequently, EMF reduced hepatic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and MDA levels, which means that EMF relieved liver damage caused by oxidative stress in HFD-fed mice.

CONCLUSIONS

EMF may activate the CaMKKβ/AMPK/SREBP-1c and Nrf2 pathways to control hepatic lipid deposition and oxidative stress. This investigation indicates that EMF may be a novel therapeutic method for NAFLD.

Sciadonic acid attenuates high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice with alterations in the gut microbiota

Obesity has been reported to be associated with dysbiosis of gut microbiota. Sciadonic acid (SC) is one of the main functional components of Torreya grandis "Merrillii" seed oil. However, the effect of SC on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity has not been elucidated. In this study, we evaluated the effects of SC on lipid metabolism and the gut flora in mice fed with a high-fat diet. The results revealed that SC activates the PPARα/SREBP-1C/FAS signaling pathway and reduces the levels of total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycerols (TG), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), but increases the level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and inhibits weight gain. Among them, high-dose SC was the most effective; the TC, TG and LDL-C levels were reduced by 20.03%, 28.40% and 22.07%, respectively; the HDL-C level was increased by 8.55%. In addition, SC significantly increased glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels by 98.21% and 35.17%, respectively, decreased oxidative stress, and ameliorated the pathological damage to the liver caused by a high-fat diet. Furthermore, SC treatment altered the composition of the intestinal flora, promoting the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, while simultaneously decreasing the relative abundance of potentially harmful bacteria such as Faecalibaculum, norank_f_Desulfovibrionaceae, and Romboutsia. Spearman's correlation analysis indicated that the gut microbiota was associated with SCFAs and biochemical indicators. In summary, our results suggested that SC can improve lipid metabolism disorders and regulate the gut microbial structure.

Dimethyl fumarate attenuates paraquat-induced pulmonary oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrosis in mice

Paraquat (PQ) is the most important cationic bipyridyl herbicide in the agricultural industry, which is very toxic to humans and animals and causes disruption in many organs, mainly in the lungs. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is an immune-modulating drug used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and psoriasis shows antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic effects. In this study, the ameliorative effects of DMF (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg, orally) on PQ (30 mg/kg) model of lung damage were evaluated in male mice. DMF was given daily for 7 days and PQ was administrated in the fourth day in a single dose. On the eighth day, the animals were sacrificed, and their lung tissue were removed. The results indicated that DMF can ameliorate PQ-induced the significant increase in lung index, hydroxyproline, as well as TBARS, TGF-β, NF-κB and decrease in the amount of total thiol, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, Nrf-2, and INF-γ. The histopathological results confirmed indicated findings. The results showed that the protective effect of DMF on PQ-induced toxicity is mediated through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic activities.

Obesity-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment in young adult versus middle-aged mice

BACKGROUND

Obesity rates are increasing worldwide. Obesity leads to many complications, including predisposing individuals to the development of cognitive impairment as they age. Immune dysregulation, including inflammaging (e.g., increased circulating cytokines) and immunosenescence (declining immune system function), commonly occur in obesity and aging and may impact cognitive impairment. As such, immune system changes across the lifespan may impact the effects of obesity on neuroinflammation and associated cognitive impairment. However, the role of age in obesity-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment is unclear. To further define this putative relationship, the current study examined metabolic and inflammatory profiles, along with cognitive changes using a high-fat diet (HFD) mouse model of obesity.

RESULTS

First, HFD promoted age-related changes in hippocampal gene expression. Given this early HFD-induced aging phenotype, we fed HFD to young adult and middle-aged mice to determine the effect of age on inflammatory responses, metabolic profile, and cognitive function. As anticipated, HFD caused a dysmetabolic phenotype in both age groups. However, older age exacerbated HFD cognitive and neuroinflammatory changes, with a bi-directional regulation of hippocampal inflammatory gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these data indicate that HFD promotes an early aging phenotype in the brain, which is suggestive of inflammaging and immunosenescence. Furthermore, age significantly compounded the impact of HFD on cognitive outcomes and on the regulation of neuroinflammatory programs in the brain.

Evaluation of antiobesity and hepatorenal protective activities of Salvia officinalis extracts pre-treatment in high-fat diet-induced obese rats

The present study evaluated the effects of Hail Salvia officinalis total extract (SOTE) and its high flavonoid fraction (SOHFF) on the high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity and hepatorenal damage in rats. Salvia officinalis plants were collected from Hail region, Saudi Arabia. Rats were fed HFD and supplemented orally with SOTE (250 mg kg^-1) or SOHFF (100 mg kg^-1) or simvastatin (SVS; 10 mg kg^-1) every day for 8 weeks. Compared to the controls, HFD-induced obesity led to significant increases in body weight, body weight gained, blood insulin, leptin, cardiac enzymes (LDH and CPK) activity, and atherogenic index (AI). HFD rats also showed higher levels of hepatic and renal function biomarkers (ALT, urea, and creatinine), as well as lower levels of PPARγ and Nrf2-gene expression and a disrupted lipid profile. Moreover, HFD rats had lower levels of hepatic and renal antioxidant biomarkers (CAT, GPx, SOD, GR, and GSH), accompanied by higher levels of hepatic and renal lipid peroxidation (LPO), nitric oxide (NO), and inflammatory mediators (interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)). In addition, histological examination of hepatic and renal tissues revealed histopathological changes that validated the biochemical findings. Compared to HFD group, SOTE and SOHFF treatment led to marked amelioration of all the aforementioned parameters. Collectively, supplementation with SOTE and SOHFF effectively reversed HFD-induced alterations through its antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Hence, SOTE and SOHFF have therapeutic potential in controlling obesity and related pathologies.

Aloe vera ameliorates hyperlipidemia, enhances endogenous antioxidant activity and regulates liver function in high fat diet fed mice

BACKGROUND: Prolonged high fat diet consumption was reported to cause metabolic disorders including obesity, NAFLD and insulin resistance. NAFLD is one of the common causes of liver failure with lipid accumulation and inflammation as the major driving forces for its progression. OBJECTIVE: The study was aimed at evaluating the benefits of Aloe vera supplementation on lipid profiles, antioxidant properties, liver function as well as the histology of liver, heart and brain on high fat diet induced toxicity in BALB/c mice. METHODS: Eighteen mice were divided into three groups (n = 6). Group 1 received normal diet (Vital feed), group 2 received high fat diet (HFD) i.e. 70 g of normal diet plus 30 g of margarine, while group 3 received high fat diet plus Aloe vera (HFD+AV) i.e. 80 g of HFD plus 20 g of Aloe vera gel. The mice were fed for 10 weeks and euthanized thereafter. The liver function, lipid profiles, antioxidant properties as well as liver, brain and heart histology were evaluated. RESULTS: The levels of cholesterol, triglycerides and low density lipoprotein were significantly increased (P <  0.05) in the HFD treated mice compared to the control. Liver catalase and superoxide dismutase activities were significantly increased (P <  0.05) in HFD+AV treated mice compared to the control and HFD treated mice. The liver of HFD+AV treated mice showed normal architecture while those of HFD treated mice showed numerous hepatic vacuoles indicative of fat droplets. CONCLUSIONS: Aloe vera supplementation regulated liver function and prevents hyperlipidemia. The resultant effect increased antioxidant activities thereby preventing liver injury and brain damage.

Mechanisms of Sensitivity and Resistance of Primary Effusion Lymphoma to Dimethyl Fumarate (DMF)

PEL is a rare B cell lymphoma associated with KSHV that mainly arises in immune-deficient individuals. The search for new drugs to treat this cancer is still ongoing given its aggressiveness and the poor response to chemotherapies. In this study, we found that DMF, a drug known for its anti-inflammatory properties which is registered for the treatment of psoriasis and relapsing–remitting MS, could be a promising therapeutic strategy against PEL. Indeed, although some mechanisms of resistance were induced, DMF activated NRF2, reduced ROS and inhibited the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the release of the pro-inflammatory and immune suppressive cytokines IL-6 and IL-10, which are known to sustain PEL survival. Interestingly, we observed that DMF displayed a stronger cytotoxic effect against fresh PEL cells in comparison to PEL cell lines, due to the activation of ERK1/2 and autophagy in the latter cells. This finding further encourages the possibility of using DMF for the treatment of PEL.

Monkfish Peptides Mitigate High Fat Diet-Induced Hepatic Steatosis in Mice

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a hepatic metabolic syndrome usually accompanied by fatty degeneration and functional impairment. The aim of the study was to determine whether monkfish peptides (LPs) could ameliorate high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD and its underlying mechanisms. NAFLD was induced in mice by giving them an HFD for eight weeks, after which LPs were administered in various dosages. In comparison to the HFD control group: body weight in the LP-treated groups decreased by 23–28%; triacylglycerol levels in the blood decreased by 16–35%; and low-density lipoproteins levels in the blood decreased by 23–51%. Additionally, we found that LPs elevated the activity of hepatic antioxidant enzymes and reduced the inflammatory reactions within fatty liver tissue. Investigating the effect on metabolic pathways, we found that in LP-treated mice: the levels of phospho-AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK), and phospho-acetyl CoA carboxylase (p-ACC) in the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway were up-regulated and the levels of downstream sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1 (SREBP-1) were down-regulated; lipid oxidation increased and free fatty acid (FFA) accumulation decreased (revealed by the increased carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1) and the decreased fatty acid synthase (FASN) expression, respectively); the nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) antioxidant pathway was activated; and the levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and nicotinamide quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) were increased. Overall, all these findings demonstrated that LPs can improve the antioxidant capacity of liver to alleviate NAFLD progression mainly through modulating the AMPK and Nrf2 pathways, and thus it could be considered as an effective candidate in the treatment of human NAFLD.

Effect of Lactobacillus fermentum HFY06 Combined with Arabinoxylan on Reducing Lipid Accumulation in Mice Fed with High-Fat Diet

In this experiment, a high-fat diet was used to induce hyperlipidemia in mice to determine the synergistic effect of AX and L. fermentum HFY06 on the prevention of hyperlipidemia and its potential regulatory mechanism. The results of this study showed that after the AX and L. fermentum HFY06 synergistic intervention, the body weight, epididymal fat index, blood lipid level, and liver function indexes of mice were improved. In addition, the synbiotics comprising AX and L. fermentum HFY06 increased the CAT activity in the serum of mice on a high-fat diet, reduced NO and MDA levels, and improved the body's oxidative stress. From the perspective of molecular biology, on the one hand, AX and L. fermentum HFY06 synergistic intervention activated the AMPK pathway to regulate body lipid metabolism; up-regulated the mRNA expressions of CPT-1, PPAR-α, CYP7A1, and HSL; and down-regulated the mRNA expressions of ACC, C/EBPα, and LPL. On the other hand, the synergistic effect of AX and HFY06 enhanced the mRNA expressions of ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-1 in the small intestine of mice, increased the strength of the intestinal barrier, and optimized the composition of the intestinal microbiota. From the above results, it can be concluded that AX and L. fermentum HFY06 have a synergistic effect in improving hyperlipidemia. However, this study was only performed using animal models, and the lipid synthesis and metabolism mechanism are complicated; hence, further clinical studies are needed.

Myoglobin promotes macrophage polarization to M1 type and pyroptosis via the RIG-I/Caspase1/GSDMD signaling pathway in CS-AKI

Crush syndrome (CS) is a life-threatening illness in traffic accidents and earthquakes. Crush syndrome-induced acute kidney injury (CS-AKI) is considered to be mainly due to myoglobin (Mb) circulation and deposition after skeletal muscle ruptures and releases. Macrophages are the primary immune cells that fight foreign substances and play critical roles in regulating the body's natural immune response. However, what effect does myoglobin have on macrophages and the mechanisms involved in the CS-AKI remain unclear. This study aims to look into how myoglobin affects macrophages of the CS-AKI model. C57BL/6 mice were used to construct the CS-AKI model by digital crush platform. Biochemical analysis and renal histology confirmed the successful establishment of the CS-AKI mouse model. Ferrous myoglobin was used to treat Raw264.7 macrophages to mimic the CS-AKI cell model in vitro. The macrophage polarization toward M1 type and activation of RIG-I as myoglobin sensor were verified by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), Western blotting (WB), and immunofluorescence (IF). Macrophage pyroptosis was observed under light microscopy. The interaction between RIG-I and caspase1 was subsequently explored by co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) and IF. Small interfering RNA (siRIG-I) and pyroptosis inhibitor dimethyl fumarate (DMF) were used to verify the role of macrophage polarization and pyroptosis in CS-AKI. In the kidney tissue of CS-AKI mice, macrophage infiltration and M1 type were found. We also detected that in the cell model of CS-AKI in vitro, ferrous myoglobin treatment promoted macrophages polarization to M1. Meanwhile, we observed pyroptosis, and myoglobin activated the RIG-I/Caspase1/GSDMD signaling pathway. In addition, pyroptosis inhibitor DMF not only alleviated kidney injury of CS-AKI mice but also inhibited macrophage polarization to M1 phenotype and pyroptosis via the RIG-I/Caspase1/GSDMD signaling pathway. Our research found that myoglobin promotes macrophage polarization to M1 type and pyroptosis via the RIG-I/Caspase1/GSDMD signaling pathway in CS-AKI.

Water extract of Ferula lehmanni Boiss. prevents high-fat diet-induced overweight and liver injury by modulating the intestinal microbiota in mice

Obesity, often accompanied by hepatic steatosis, has been associated with an increased risk of health complications such as fatty liver disease and certain cancers. Ferula lehmannii Boiss., a food and medicine homologue, has been used for centuries as a seasoning showing anti-bacterial and anti-oxidant effects on digestive discomfort. In the present study, we sought to investigate whether a short-term oral administration of water extract of Ferula lehmanni Boiss. (WEFL) could prevent high-fat diet (HFD)-induced abnormal weight gain and hepatic steatosis in mice and its underlying mechanisms. WEFL reduced HFD-increased body weight, liver injury markers and inflammatory cytokines (i.e. IL-6 and IL-1β), and inhibited the elevation of AMPKα, SREBP-1c and FAS in HFD. Moreover, WEFL reconstructed the gut microbiota composition by increasing the relative abundances of beneficial bacteria, e.g. Akkermansia spp., while decreasing Desulfovibrio spp. and so on, thereby reversing the detrimental effects of HFD in mice. Removal of the gut microbiota with antibiotics partially eliminated the hepatoprotective effects of WEFL. Notably, WEFL substantially promoted the levels of short-chain fatty acids, especially butyric acid. To clarify the functional components at play in WEFL, we used UPLC-MS/MS to comprehensively detect its substance composition and found it to be a collection of polyphenol-rich compounds. Together, our findings demonstrate that WEFL prevented HFD-induced obesity and liver injury through the hepatic-microbiota axis, and such health-promoting value might be explained by the enriched abundant polyphenols.

Hepatic retinaldehyde dehydrogenases are modulated by tocopherol supplementation in mice with hepatic steatosis

OBJECTIVES

An altered retinol metabolism might play a role in the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Tocopherols (TF) modulate metabolic pathways and have been proposed as a complementary treatment of obesity-induced metabolic alterations. Moreover, there is evidence suggesting that TF may modulate retinol metabolism. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the dietary supplementation of α- and γ-TF modulates the expression of hepatic retinaldehyde dehydrogenases, RALDH1, RALDH2, and RALDH3 (involved in retinol metabolism) and, lipogenic factors sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) and cluster differentiation 36 (CD36) in an animal model of diet-induced NAFLD.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were divided into four groups: a control diet (CD) group (10% fat, 20% protein, 70% carbohydrates); a CD + TF group (α-tocopherol: 0.7 mg·kg·d^-1, γ-tocopherol: 3.5 mg·kg·d^-1); a high-fat diet (HFD) group (60% fat, 20% protein, 20% carbohydrates); and a HFD + TF group (0.01 mL·g body weight·d^-1), for 12 wk. General parameters (body-adipose tissue weight, glucose-triacylglyceride serum levels), liver steatosis (histology, liver triacylglycerides content), and hepatic RALDH1, RALDH2, RALDH3, SREBP-1c and CD36 (qPCR, quantitative polymerase chain reaction; IHQ, immunohistochemistry) were measured.

RESULTS

TF supplementation in HFD-fed mice decreased the presence of lipid vesicles (90%) and total lipid content (75%) and downregulated the expression of RALDH1, RALDH3, SREBP-1c, and CD36.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrated that α- and γ-TF (1:5 ratio) might play a role in modulating retinol metabolism in the prevention of NAFLD induced by a HFD.