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Zgarbová E, Vrzal R. Skatole: A thin red line between its benefits and toxicity. Biochimie 2022; 208:1-12. [PMID: 36586563 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2022.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Skatole (3-methylindole) is a heterocyclic compound naturally found in the feces of vertebrates and is produced by certain flowers. Skatole has been used in specific products of the perfume industry or as a flavor additive in ice cream. Additionally, skatole is formed by tryptophan pyrolysis of tobacco and has been demonstrated to be a mutagen. Skatole-induced pulmonotoxicity was reliably described in ruminants and rodents, but no studies have been conducted in humans. Initially, we provide basic knowledge and a historical overview of skatole. Then, skatole bacterial formation in the intestine is described, and the importance of the microbiome during this process is evaluated. Increased skatole concentrations could serve as a marker for intestinal disease development. Therefore, the human molecular targets of skatole that may have significant effects on various processes in the human body are described. Ultimately, we suggest a link between skatole intestinal formation in humans and skatole-induced pulmonotoxicity, which should be explored further in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliška Zgarbová
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Slechtitelu 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Radim Vrzal
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Slechtitelu 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Burgeon C, Font-i-Furnols M, Garrido MD, Linares MB, Brostaux Y, Sabeña G, Fauconnier ML, Panella-Riera N. Can sensory boar taint levels be explained by fatty acid composition and emitted volatile organic compounds in addition to androstenone and skatole content? Meat Sci 2022; 195:108985. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2022.108985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Aluwé M, Heyrman E, Kostyra E, Żakowska-Biemans S, Almeida J, Citek J, Font-I-Furnols M, Moreira O, Zadinová K, Tudoreanu L, Lin-Schistra L, Van den Broeke A. Consumer evaluation of meat quality from barrows, immunocastrates and boars in six countries. Animal 2022; 16:100455. [PMID: 35183012 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2022.100455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The practice of surgical castration of piglets and its alternatives is still under debate. Production of boars may impair meat quality due to boar taint and reduced tenderness compared to meat from surgically castrated male pigs, while immunocastration reduces boar taint and may improve meat quality but seems to be less accepted by the pig chain. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the consumer's sensory appreciation of meat from barrows (BAs), immunocastrates (ICs) and boars (BOs) in six European countries, taking into account the selection of tainted carcass and consumers' appreciation of boar taint. Loin chops of 30 BAs, 30 ICs and 30 BOs were evaluated by 752 consumers in six countries: Belgium, Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Spain. Consumers rated odour, flavour, tenderness, juiciness, overall liking and willingness to buy and sensitivity to and liking of androstenone (AND) and liking of skatole (SKA) was also tested. In each of the six countries, consumers liked the odour of the BO samples less than that of BA, and IC intermediate. For flavour, tenderness, juiciness, overall liking and willingness to buy, liking scores given by the Czech, Polish and Portuguese consumers significantly differed between the BA, BO and IC. Willingness to buy was highest for BA by Czech and Polish consumers and for BA and IC by Portuguese consumers. The frequency of the negative check all terms that apply terms also differed, with a higher frequency of disgusting for BO compared to BA and IC and of off-flavour, irritating, manure, sweat, disappointing compared to BA, and intermediate for IC. 31% of the consumers disliked the odour of AND (NEGAND), and 36% of them were not sensitive; in contrast, 77% of the consumers disliked SKA (NEGSKA). The decrease in flavour liking score for BO compared to BA and IC was more outspoken by the NEGAND consumer, while NEGSKA consumers gave an overall lower liking score independent of the type of male pig. The results of this study indicate that IC can be a valid alternative for surgical castration.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Aluwé
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
| | - E Heyrman
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E Kostyra
- Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), ul. Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - S Żakowska-Biemans
- Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), ul. Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - J Almeida
- Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária (INIAV), Quinta da Fonte Boa, 2005-048 Vale de Santarém, Portugal
| | - J Citek
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CZU), Kamycka 129, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - M Font-I-Furnols
- Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Product Quality and Technology Program, Finca Camps I Armet, 17121 Monells, Girona, Spain
| | - O Moreira
- Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária (INIAV), Quinta da Fonte Boa, 2005-048 Vale de Santarém, Portugal
| | - K Zadinová
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CZU), Kamycka 129, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - L Tudoreanu
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory for Research on Heavy Metals Accumulation in the Food Chain and Modeling, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 011464 Bucharest, Romania
| | - L Lin-Schistra
- Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group, Wageningen University, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - A Van den Broeke
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium
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Djurkin Kušec I, Cimerman E, Škrlep M, Karolyi D, Gvozdanović K, Komlenić M, Radišić Ž, Kušec G. Influence of Immunocastration on Slaughter Traits and Boar Taint Compounds in Pigs Originating from Three Different Terminal Sire Lines. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11010228. [PMID: 33477673 PMCID: PMC7831900 DOI: 10.3390/ani11010228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Due to the negative public opinion and welfare issues related to surgical castration, gradual introduction of alternatives like entire males and immunocastrates is taking place. Despite several economical and welfare advantages that the alternatives offer, numerous issues (i.e., boar taint, meat quality alterations), as well as their interactions with rearing and breeding (genetic) factors remain unanswered. Therefore, the focus of this study was to investigate the possibility of using different commercial sire lines in three male sex categories (entire males, immunocastrates, surgical castrates) and to compare their carcass traits, meat quality and boar taint compounds. A significant effect of terminal sire line and/or male category together with their interaction was observed for most of the investigated carcass and meat quality traits. The observed interaction should be taken into consideration when deciding on the production of a specific male category. Abstract The aim of the research was to investigate the influence of terminal sire line (TSL) and male category (MC) on carcass and meat quality of commercial fatteners. The study was performed on 180 pigs originating from three terminal sire lines: A (Pietrain × Large White), B (pure Pietrain), and C (Pietrain × Duroc × Large White), being assigned to three groups according to MC: immunocastrates (IC, n = 60), surgical castrates (SC, n = 60) and entire males (EM, n = 60). TSL affected most of the carcass and meat quality traits, together with the androstenone concentration. At the same time, MC had a significant effect on fat thickness, ham circumference, drip loss, cooking loss and androstenone and skatole concentrations. A significant interaction effect was observed for carcass length and ham circumference, as well as for most of the measured meat quality traits (except cooking loss, CIE L*, CIE b*, and Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF)). Among the three investigated sire lines, immunocastration was shown to be most beneficial for fatteners sired by the TSL C. However, if deciding to raise EM, fatteners from the TSL B are recommended in terms of carcass and meat quality, although strategies for avoiding boar taint in their carcasses must be taken into consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivona Djurkin Kušec
- Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (I.D.K.); (K.G.); (Ž.R.)
| | - Emilija Cimerman
- Directorate for Professional Support to the Development of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Croatia, Bani 110, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Martin Škrlep
- Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Hacquetova Ulica 17, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Danijel Karolyi
- University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetošimunska Cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Kristina Gvozdanović
- Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (I.D.K.); (K.G.); (Ž.R.)
| | - Miodrag Komlenić
- Belje Plus d.d., Svetog Ivana Krstitelja 1a, 31326 Darda, Croatia;
| | - Žarko Radišić
- Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (I.D.K.); (K.G.); (Ž.R.)
| | - Goran Kušec
- Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (I.D.K.); (K.G.); (Ž.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-31-554-866; Fax: +385-31-554-853
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Font-I-Furnols M, Martín-Bernal R, Aluwé M, Bonneau M, Haugen JE, Mörlein D, Mörlein J, Panella-Riera N, Škrlep M. Feasibility of on/at Line Methods to Determine Boar Taint and Boar Taint Compounds: An Overview. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E1886. [PMID: 33076492 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Due to welfare issues, the physical castration of male pigs is decreasing, and the entire male pig production is increasing. Fattening entire male pigs requires control due to the possibility of accumulating off odour/flavour called boar taint, which is mainly due to two compounds - skatole and androstenone. If carcasses with boar taint reach the market, it can cause a negative consumer reaction which may have economic consequences for the whole meat chain. Thus, it is necessary to sort out carcasses at the slaughter line. Today, a sensory quality control (human nose method) is used in some slaughter plants for this purpose. Detection by physical or chemical methods is also envisaged. A colorimetric method to determine skatole has been used in Danish abattoirs for decades, but it is foreseen that it will soon be replaced by the laser diode thermal desorption ion source coupled with a mass spectrometry equipment that allows a fully automated classification based on skatole and androstenone levels at speed line, with a delay of less than 40 min. Other potential methods such as the electrochemical biosensors, rapid evaporative ionization mass spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, still need further development and validation for an application at abattoir level. Abstract Classification of carcasses at the slaughter line allows an optimisation of its processing and differentiated payment to producers. Boar taint is a quality characteristic that is evaluated in some slaughter plants. This odour and flavour is mostly present in entire males and perceived generally by sensitive consumers as unpleasant. In the present work, the methodologies currently used in slaughter plants for boar taint classification (colorimetric method and sensory quality control-human nose) and the methodologies that have the potential to be implemented on/at the slaughter line (mass spectrometry, Raman and biosensors) have been summarized. Their main characteristics are presented and an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) has been carried out. From this, we can conclude that, apart from human nose, the technology that arises as very promising and available on the market, and that will probably become a substitute for the colorimetric method, is the tandem between the laser diode thermal desorption ion source and the mass spectrometry (LDTD-MS/MS) with automation of the sampling and sample pre-treatment, because it is able to work at the slaughter line, is fast and robust, and measures both androstenone and skatole.
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Hemeryck LY, Wauters J, Dewulf L, Decloedt AI, Aluwé M, De Smet S, Fraeye I, Vanhaecke L. Valorisation of tainted boar meat in patties, frankfurter sausages and cooked ham by means of targeted dilution, cooking and smoking. Food Chem 2020; 330:126897. [PMID: 32569929 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Because of the need to abolish the castration of piglets without anaesthesia/analgesia, the pig industry is searching for a mode of action for the valorisation of meat with boar taint, an off-odour in entire male pigs. Carcasses with boar taint were selected by means of sensory and chemical analysis, after which patties with different levels of tainted boar meat were produced, as well as cooked ham and Frankfurter sausages using different smoke condensates and cooking temperatures. For these products orthonasal and retronasal boar taint odour were assessed by a trained expert panel. The results offer guidance regarding dilution of tainted meat (with <400 µg/kg androstenone if skatole is low or <200 µg/kg androstenone in concurrence with ≥37 µg/kg skatole) and the potential application of smoke condensates (e.g., Rudinsmoke C for sausages and Smokez LFBN for ham) as promising boar taint masking strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieselot Y Hemeryck
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jella Wauters
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Lore Dewulf
- Research Group for Technology and Quality of Animal Products, Department M(2)S, Member of Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), KU Leuven Ghent Technology Campus, Gebroeders De Smetstraat, 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anneleen I Decloedt
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Marijke Aluwé
- Animal Sciences Unit, Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Scheldeweg, 68, B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - Stefaan De Smet
- Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links, 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ilse Fraeye
- Research Group for Technology and Quality of Animal Products, Department M(2)S, Member of Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), KU Leuven Ghent Technology Campus, Gebroeders De Smetstraat, 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biosciences, Queen's University, University Road, Belfast, Ireland.
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Brinke I, Große-Brinkhaus C, Roth K, Pröll-Cornelissen MJ, Henne H, Schellander K, Tholen E. Genomic background and genetic relationships between boar taint and fertility traits in German Landrace and Large White. BMC Genet 2020; 21:61. [PMID: 32513168 PMCID: PMC7282179 DOI: 10.1186/s12863-020-00865-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to ethical reasons, surgical castration of young male piglets in their first week of life without anesthesia will be banned in Germany from 2021. Breeding against boar taint is already implemented in sire breeds of breeding organizations but in recent years a low demand made this trait economically less important. The objective of this study was to estimate heritabilities and genetic relationships between boar taint compounds androstenone and skatole and maternal/paternal reproduction traits in 4'924 Landrace (LR) and 4'299 Large White (LW) animals from nucleus populations. Additionally, genome wide association analysis (GWAS) was performed per trait and breed to detect SNP marker with possible pleiotropic effects that are associated with boar taint and fertility. RESULTS Estimated heritabilities (h2) were 0.48 (±0.08) for LR (0.39 ± 0.07 for LW) for androstenone and 0.52 (±0.08) for LR (0.32 ± 0.07 for LW) for skatole. Heritabilities for reproduction did not differ between breeds except age at first insemination (LR: h2 = 0.27 (±0.05), LW: h2 = 0.34 (±0.05)). Estimates of genetic correlation (rg) between boar taint and fertility were different in LR and LW breeds. In LR an unfavorable rg of 0.31 (±0.15) was observed between androstenone and number of piglets born alive, whereas this rg in LW (- 0.15 (±0.16)) had an opposite sign. A similar breed-specific difference is observed between skatole and sperm count. Within LR, the rg of 0.08 (±0.13) indicates no relationship between the traits, whereas the rg of - 0.37 (±0.14) in LW points to an unfavorable relationship. In LR GWAS identified QTL regions on SSC5 (21.1-22.3 Mb) for androstenone and on SSC6 (5.5-7.5 Mb) and SSC14 (141.1-141.6 Mb) for skatole. For LW, one marker was found on SSC17 at 48.1 Mb for androstenone and one QTL on SSC14 between 140.5 Mb and 141.6 Mb for skatole. CONCLUSION Knowledge about such genetic correlations could help to balance conventional breeding programs with boar taint in maternal breeds. QTL regions with unfavorable pleiotropic effects on boar taint and fertility could have deleterious consequences in genomic selection programs. Constraining the weighting of these QTL in the genomic selection formulae may be a useful strategy to avoid physiological imbalances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Brinke
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Katharina Roth
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Maren J Pröll-Cornelissen
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany.,Association for Bioeconomy Research (FBF e.V.), Adenauerallee 174, 53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Hubert Henne
- BHZP GmbH, An der Wassermühle 8, 21368 Dahlenburg-Ellringen, Germany
| | - Karl Schellander
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ernst Tholen
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
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Christensen RH, Nielsen DB, Aaslyng MD. Estimating the risk of dislike: An industry tool for setting sorting limits for boar taint compounds. Food Qual Prefer 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Aaslyng MD, Koch AG. The use of smoke as a strategy for masking boar taint in sausages and bacon. Food Res Int 2018; 108:387-395. [PMID: 29735071 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.03.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Smoke has often been recommended as a masking agent for boar taint. However, guidelines on how much smoke is necessary have not been established. We compared different smoking parameters in bacon (smoking times) and sausages (smoking times and use of liquid smoke). In streaky bacon from entire male pigs with skatole concentrations of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentrations of up to 5.8 μg/g in the neck fat, three smoking times were compared: 10, 30 and 60 min. Boar taint was partially, but not fully, masked. The longer the smoking time, the better the masking effect. In sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentration of up to 3.6 μg/g (the meat part) or 2.4 μg/g (the fat part) in the neck fat, smoking for 40 and 80 min fully masked the boar taint, whereas only a minor effect was seen after 10 and 20 min smoking. Liquid smoke (0.1%) did not mask boar taint when added to sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of 0.36 μg/g (meat) or 0.38 μg/g (fat) and androstenone concentration of 2.3 μg/g (meat) and 2.9 μg/g (fat). To effectively mask boar taint, an intense smoked flavour is therefore necessary, and the longer the smoking time, the better. In contrast, the use of liquid smoke mixed into the product was not effective in the concentrations used in the current study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margit Dall Aaslyng
- Danish Meat Research Institute, Technological Institute, Gregersensvej 9, Taastrup DK-2630, Denmark.
| | - Anette Granly Koch
- Danish Meat Research Institute, Technological Institute, Gregersensvej 9, Taastrup DK-2630, Denmark
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