Spatiotemporal Organization of the E. coli Transcriptome: Translation Independence and Engagement in Regulation

Minicells as an Escherichia coli mechanism for the accumulation and disposal of fluorescent cadmium sulphide nanoparticles

BACKGROUND

Bacterial biosynthesis of fluorescent nanoparticles or quantum dots (QDs) has emerged as a unique mechanism for heavy metal tolerance. However, the physiological pathways governing the removal of QDs from bacterial cells remains elusive. This study investigates the role of minicells, previously identified as a means of eliminating damaged proteins and enhancing bacterial resistance to stress. Building on our prior work, which unveiled the formation of minicells during cadmium QDs biosynthesis in Escherichia coli, we hypothesize that minicells serve as a mechanism for the accumulation and detoxification of QDs in bacterial cells.

RESULTS

Intracellular biosynthesis of CdS QDs was performed in E. coli mutants ΔminC and ΔminCDE, known for their minicell-producing capabilities. Fluorescence microscopy analysis demonstrated that the generated minicells exhibited fluorescence emission, indicative of QD loading. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the presence of nanoparticles in minicells, while energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) revealed the coexistence of cadmium and sulfur. Cadmium quantification through flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) demonstrated that minicells accumulated a higher cadmium content compared to rod cells. Moreover, fluorescence intensity analysis suggested that minicells accumulated a greater quantity of fluorescent nanoparticles, underscoring their efficacy in QD removal. Biosynthesis dynamics in minicell-producing strains indicated that biosynthesized QDs maintained high fluorescence intensity even during prolonged biosynthesis times, suggesting continuous QD clearance in minicells.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support a model wherein E. coli utilizes minicells for the accumulation and removal of nanoparticles, highlighting their physiological role in eliminating harmful elements and maintaining cellular fitness. Additionally, this biosynthesis system presents an opportunity for generating minicell-coated nanoparticles with enhanced biocompatibility for diverse applications.

On the ever-growing functional versatility of the CRISPR-Cas13 system

CRISPR-Cas systems evolved in prokaryotes to implement a powerful antiviral immune response as a result of sequence-specific targeting by ribonucleoproteins. One of such systems consists of an RNA-guided RNA endonuclease, known as CRISPR-Cas13. In very recent years, this system is being repurposed in different ways in order to decipher and engineer gene expression programmes. Here, we discuss the functional versatility of the CRISPR-Cas13 system, which includes the ability for RNA silencing, RNA editing, RNA tracking, nucleic acid detection and translation regulation. This functional palette makes the CRISPR-Cas13 system a relevant tool in the broad field of systems and synthetic biology.

Multilayered regulation of amino acid metabolism in Escherichia coli

Amino acid metabolism in Escherichia coli has long been studied and has established the basis for regulatory mechanisms at the transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and posttranslational levels. In addition to the classical signal transduction cascade involving posttranslational modifications (PTMs), novel PTMs in the two primary nitrogen assimilation pathways have recently been uncovered. The regulon of the master transcriptional regulator NtrC is further expanded by a small RNA derived from the 3´UTR of glutamine synthetase mRNA, which coordinates central carbon and nitrogen metabolism. Furthermore, recent advances in sequencing technologies have revealed the global regulatory networks of transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulators, Lrp and GcvB. This review provides an update of the multilayered and interconnected regulatory networks governing amino acid metabolism in E. coli.

MinD-RNase E interplay controls localization of polar mRNAs in E. coli

The E. coli transcriptome at the cell's poles (polar transcriptome) is unique compared to the membrane and cytosol. Several factors have been suggested to mediate mRNA localization to the membrane, but the mechanism underlying polar localization of mRNAs remains unknown. Here, we combined a candidate system approach with proteomics to identify factors that mediate mRNAs localization to the cell poles. We identified the pole-to-pole oscillating protein MinD as an essential factor regulating polar mRNA localization, although it is not able to bind RNA directly. We demonstrate that RNase E, previously shown to interact with MinD, is required for proper localization of polar mRNAs. Using in silico modeling followed by experimental validation, the membrane-binding site in RNase E was found to mediate binding to MinD. Intriguingly, not only does MinD affect RNase E interaction with the membrane, but it also affects its mode of action and dynamics. Polar accumulation of RNase E in ΔminCDE cells resulted in destabilization and depletion of mRNAs from poles. Finally, we show that mislocalization of polar mRNAs may prevent polar localization of their protein products. Taken together, our findings show that the interplay between MinD and RNase E determines the composition of the polar transcriptome, thus assigning previously unknown roles for both proteins.

The contribution of mRNA targeting to spatial protein localization in bacteria

About 30% of all bacterial proteins execute their function outside of the cytosol and must be inserted into or translocated across the cytoplasmic membrane. This requires efficient targeting systems that recognize N-terminal signal sequences in client proteins and deliver them to protein transport complexes in the membrane. While the importance of these protein transport machineries for the spatial organization of the bacterial cell is well documented in multiple studies, the contribution of mRNA targeting and localized translation to protein transport is only beginning to emerge. mRNAs can exhibit diverse subcellular localizations in the bacterial cell and can accumulate at sites where new protein is required. This is frequently observed for mRNAs encoding membrane proteins, but the physiological importance of membrane enrichment of mRNAs and the consequences it has for the insertion of the encoded protein have not been explored in detail. Here, we briefly highlight some basic concepts of signal sequence-based protein targeting and describe in more detail strategies that enable the monitoring of mRNA localization in bacterial cells and potential mechanisms that route mRNAs to particular positions within the cell. Finally, we summarize some recent developments that demonstrate that mRNA targeting and localized translation can sustain membrane protein insertion under stress conditions when the protein-targeting machinery is compromised. Thus, mRNA targeting likely acts as a back-up strategy and complements the canonical signal sequence-based protein targeting.

Regulation of major bacterial survival strategies by transcripts sequestration in a membraneless organelle

TmaR, the only known pole-localizer protein in Escherichia coli, was shown to cluster at the cell poles and control localization and activity of the major sugar regulator in a tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent manner. Here, we show that TmaR assembles by phase separation (PS) via heterotypic interactions with RNA in vivo and in vitro. An unbiased automated mutant screen combined with directed mutagenesis and genetic manipulations uncovered the importance of a predicted nucleic-acid-binding domain, a disordered region, and charged patches, one containing the phosphorylated tyrosine, for TmaR condensation. We demonstrate that, by protecting flagella-related transcripts, TmaR controls flagella production and, thus, cell motility and biofilm formation. These results connect PS in bacteria to survival and provide an explanation for the linkage between metabolism and motility. Intriguingly, a point mutation or increase in its cellular concentration induces irreversible liquid-to-solid transition of TmaR, similar to human disease-causing proteins, which affects cell morphology and division.

The roles of nucleoid-associated proteins and topoisomerases in chromosome structure, strand segregation, and the generation of phenotypic heterogeneity in bacteria

How to adapt to a changing environment is a fundamental, recurrent problem confronting cells. One solution is for cells to organize their constituents into a limited number of spatially extended, functionally relevant, macromolecular assemblies or hyperstructures, and then to segregate these hyperstructures asymmetrically into daughter cells. This asymmetric segregation becomes a particularly powerful way of generating a coherent phenotypic diversity when the segregation of certain hyperstructures is with only one of the parental DNA strands and when this pattern of segregation continues over successive generations. Candidate hyperstructures for such asymmetric segregation in prokaryotes include those containing the nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) and the topoisomerases. Another solution to the problem of creating a coherent phenotypic diversity is by creating a growth-environment-dependent gradient of supercoiling generated along the replication origin-to-terminus axis of the bacterial chromosome. This gradient is modulated by transcription, NAPs, and topoisomerases. Here, we focus primarily on two topoisomerases, TopoIV and DNA gyrase in Escherichia coli, on three of its NAPs (H-NS, HU, and IHF), and on the single-stranded binding protein, SSB. We propose that the combination of supercoiling-gradient-dependent and strand-segregation-dependent topoisomerase activities result in significant differences in the supercoiling of daughter chromosomes, and hence in the phenotypes of daughter cells.

Targeted RNA condensation in living cells via genetically encodable triplet repeat tags

Living systems contain various membraneless organelles that segregate proteins and RNAs via liquid-liquid phase separation. Inspired by nature, many protein-based synthetic compartments have been engineered in vitro and in living cells. Here, we introduce a genetically encoded CAG-repeat RNA tag to reprogram cellular condensate formation and recruit various non-phase-transition RNAs for cellular modulation. With the help of fluorogenic RNA aptamers, we have systematically studied the formation dynamics, spatial distributions, sizes and densities of these cellular RNA condensates. The cis- and trans-regulation functions of these CAG-repeat tags in cellular RNA localization, life time, RNA-protein interactions and gene expression have also been investigated. Considering the importance of RNA condensation in health and disease, we expect that these genetically encodable modular and self-assembled tags can be widely used for chemical biology and synthetic biology studies.

Coping with stress: How bacteria fine-tune protein synthesis and protein transport

Maintaining a functional proteome under different environmental conditions is challenging for every organism, in particular for unicellular organisms, such as bacteria. In order to cope with changing environments and stress conditions, bacteria depend on strictly coordinated proteostasis networks that control protein production, folding, trafficking, and degradation. Regulation of ribosome biogenesis and protein synthesis are cornerstones of this cellular adaptation in all domains of life, which is rationalized by the high energy demand of both processes and the increased resistance of translationally silent cells against internal or external poisons. Reduced protein synthesis ultimately also reduces the substrate load for protein transport systems, which are required for maintaining the periplasmic, inner, and outer membrane subproteomes. Consequences of impaired protein transport have been analyzed in several studies and generally induce a multifaceted response that includes the upregulation of chaperones and proteases and the simultaneous downregulation of protein synthesis. In contrast, generally less is known on how bacteria adjust the protein targeting and transport machineries to reduced protein synthesis, e.g., when cells encounter stress conditions or face nutrient deprivation. In the current review, which is mainly focused on studies using Escherichia coli as a model organism, we summarize basic concepts on how ribosome biogenesis and activity are regulated under stress conditions. In addition, we highlight some recent developments on how stress conditions directly impair protein targeting to the bacterial membrane. Finally, we describe mechanisms that allow bacteria to maintain the transport of stress-responsive proteins under conditions when the canonical protein targeting pathways are impaired.

Interactions and Insertion of Escherichia coli Hfq into Outer Membrane Vesicles as Revealed by Infrared and Orientated Circular Dichroism Spectroscopies

The possible carrier role of Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs) for small regulatory noncoding RNAs (sRNAs) has recently been demonstrated. Nevertheless, to perform their function, these sRNAs usually need a protein cofactor called Hfq. In this work we show, by using a combination of infrared and circular dichroism spectroscopies, that Hfq, after interacting with the inner membrane, can be translocated into the periplasm, and then be exported in OMVs, with the possibility to be bound to sRNAs. Moreover, we provide evidence that Hfq interacts with and is inserted into OMV membranes, suggesting a role for this protein in the release of sRNA outside the vesicle. These findings provide clues to the mechanism of host-bacteria interactions which may not be defined solely by protein-protein and protein-outer membrane contacts, but also by the exchange of RNAs, and in particular sRNAs.

Understanding spatiotemporal coupling of gene expression using single molecule RNA imaging technologies

Across all kingdoms of life, gene regulatory mechanisms underlie cellular adaptation to ever-changing environments. Regulation of gene expression adjusts protein synthesis and, in turn, cellular growth. Messenger RNAs are key molecules in the process of gene expression. Our ability to quantitatively measure mRNA expression in single cells has improved tremendously over the past decades. This revealed an unexpected coordination between the steps that control the life of an mRNA, from transcription to degradation. Here, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art imaging approaches for measurement and quantitative understanding of gene expression, starting from the early visualizations of single genes by electron microscopy to current fluorescence-based approaches in single cells, including live-cell RNA-imaging approaches to FISH-based spatial transcriptomics across model organisms. We also highlight how these methods have shaped our current understanding of the spatiotemporal coupling between transcriptional and post-transcriptional events in prokaryotes. We conclude by discussing future challenges of this multidisciplinary field.Abbreviations: mRNA: messenger RNA; rRNA: ribosomal rDNA; tRNA: transfer RNA; sRNA: small RNA; FISH: fluorescence in situ hybridization; RNP: ribonucleoprotein; smFISH: single RNA molecule FISH; smiFISH: single molecule inexpensive FISH; HCR-FISH: Hybridization Chain-Reaction-FISH; RCA: Rolling Circle Amplification; seqFISH: Sequential FISH; MERFISH: Multiplexed error robust FISH; UTR: Untranslated region; RBP: RNA binding protein; FP: fluorescent protein; eGFP: enhanced GFP, MCP: MS2 coat protein; PCP: PP7 coat protein; MB: Molecular beacons; sgRNA: single guide RNA.

Targeted RNA Condensation in Living Cells via Genetically Encodable Triplet Repeat Tags

Living systems contain various functional membraneless organelles that can segregate selective proteins and RNAs via liquid-liquid phase separation. Inspired by nature, many synthetic compartments have been engineered in vitro and in living cells, mostly focused on protein-scaffolded systems. Herein, we introduce a nature-inspired genetically encoded RNA tag to program cellular condensate formations and recruit non-phase-transition target RNAs to achieve functional modulation. In our system, different lengths of CAG-repeat tags were tested as the self-assembled scaffold to drive multivalent condensate formation. Various selective target messenger RNAs and noncoding RNAs can be compartmentalized into these condensates. With the help of fluorogenic RNA aptamers, we have systematically studied the formation dynamics, spatial distributions, sizes, and densities of these cellular RNA condensates. The regulation functions of these CAG-repeat tags on the cellular RNA localization, lifetime, RNA-protein interactions, and gene expression have also been investigated. Considering the importance of RNA condensation in both health and disease conditions, these genetically encodable modular and self-assembled tags can be potentially widely used for chemical biology and synthetic biology studies.

Membrane-localized expression, production and assembly of Vibrio parahaemolyticus T3SS2 provides evidence for transertion

It has been proposed that bacterial membrane proteins may be synthesized and inserted into the membrane by a process known as transertion, which involves membrane association of their encoding genes, followed by coupled transcription, translation and membrane insertion. Here, we provide evidence supporting that the pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus uses transertion to assemble its type III secretion system (T3SS2), to inject virulence factors into host cells. We propose a two-step transertion process where the membrane-bound co-component receptor (VtrA/VtrC) is first activated by bile acids, leading to membrane association and expression of its target gene, vtrB, located in the T3SS2 pathogenicity island. VtrB, the transmembrane transcriptional activator of T3SS2, then induces the localized expression and membrane assembly of the T3SS2 structural components and its effectors. We hypothesize that the proposed transertion process may be used by other enteric bacteria for efficient assembly of membrane-bound molecular complexes in response to extracellular signals.

Surveying membrane landscapes: a new look at the bacterial cell surface

Recent studies applying advanced imaging techniques are changing the way we understand bacterial cell surfaces, bringing new knowledge on everything from single-cell heterogeneity in bacterial populations to their drug sensitivity and mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance. In both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the outermost surface of the bacterial cell is being imaged at nanoscale; as a result, topographical maps of bacterial cell surfaces can be constructed, revealing distinct zones and specific features that might uniquely identify each cell in a population. Functionally defined assembly precincts for protein insertion into the membrane have been mapped at nanoscale, and equivalent lipid-assembly precincts are suggested from discrete lipopolysaccharide patches. As we review here, particularly for Gram-negative bacteria, the applications of various modalities of nanoscale imaging are reawakening our curiosity about what is conceptually a 3D cell surface landscape: what it looks like, how it is made and how it provides resilience to respond to environmental impacts.

mRNA targeting eliminates the need for the signal recognition particle during membrane protein insertion in bacteria

Signal-sequence-dependent protein targeting is essential for the spatiotemporal organization of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells and is facilitated by dedicated protein targeting factors such as the signal recognition particle (SRP). However, targeting signals are not exclusively contained within proteins but can also be present within mRNAs. By in vivo and in vitro assays, we show that mRNA targeting is controlled by the nucleotide content and by secondary structures within mRNAs. mRNA binding to bacterial membranes occurs independently of soluble targeting factors but is dependent on the SecYEG translocon and YidC. Importantly, membrane insertion of proteins translated from membrane-bound mRNAs occurs independently of the SRP pathway, while the latter is strictly required for proteins translated from cytosolic mRNAs. In summary, our data indicate that mRNA targeting acts in parallel to the canonical SRP-dependent protein targeting and serves as an alternative strategy for safeguarding membrane protein insertion when the SRP pathway is compromised.

Heterotypic phase separation of Hfq is linked to its roles as an RNA chaperone

Hfq, an Sm-like protein and the major RNA chaperone in E. coli, has been shown to distribute non-uniformly along a helical path under normal growth conditions and to relocate to the cell poles under certain stress conditions. We have previously shown that Hfq relocation to the poles is accompanied by polar accumulation of most small RNAs (sRNAs). Here, we show that Hfq undergoes RNA-dependent phase separation to form cytoplasmic or polar condensates of different density under normal and stress conditions, respectively. Purified Hfq forms droplets in the presence of crowding agents or RNA, indicating that its condensation is via heterotypic interactions. Stress-induced relocation of Hfq condensates and sRNAs to the poles depends on the pole-localizer TmaR. Phase separation of Hfq correlates with its ability to perform its posttranscriptional roles as sRNA-stabilizer and sRNA-mRNA matchmaker. Our study offers a spatiotemporal mechanism for sRNA-mediated regulation in response to environmental changes.

Global profiling of the RNA and protein complexes of Escherichia coli by size exclusion chromatography followed by RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry (SEC-seq)

New methods for the global identification of RNA-protein interactions have led to greater recognition of the abundance and importance of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in bacteria. Here, we expand this tool kit by developing SEC-seq, a method based on a similar concept as the established Grad-seq approach. In Grad-seq, cellular RNA and protein complexes of a bacterium of interest are separated in a glycerol gradient, followed by high-throughput RNA-sequencing and mass spectrometry analyses of individual gradient fractions. New RNA-protein complexes are predicted based on the similarity of their elution profiles. In SEC-seq, we have replaced the glycerol gradient with separation by size exclusion chromatography, which shortens operation times and offers greater potential for automation. Applying SEC-seq to Escherichia coli, we find that the method provides a higher resolution than Grad-seq in the lower molecular weight range up to ~500 kDa. This is illustrated by the ability of SEC-seq to resolve two distinct, but similarly sized complexes of the global translational repressor CsrA with either of its antagonistic small RNAs, CsrB and CsrC. We also characterized changes in the SEC-seq profiles of the small RNA MicA upon deletion of its RNA chaperones Hfq and ProQ and investigated the redistribution of these two proteins upon RNase treatment. Overall, we demonstrate that SEC-seq is a tractable and reproducible method for the global profiling of bacterial RNA-protein complexes that offers the potential to discover yet-unrecognized associations between bacterial RNAs and proteins.

Unraveling Membrane Perturbations Caused by the Bacterial Riboregulator Hfq

Hfq is a pleiotropic regulator that mediates several aspects of bacterial RNA metabolism. The protein notably regulates translation efficiency and RNA decay in Gram-negative bacteria, usually via its interaction with small regulatory RNAs. Previously, we showed that the Hfq C-terminal region forms an amyloid-like structure and that these fibrils interact with membranes. The immediate consequence of this interaction is a disruption of the membrane, but the effect on Hfq structure was unknown. To investigate details of the mechanism of interaction, the present work uses different in vitro biophysical approaches. We show that the Hfq C-terminal region influences membrane integrity and, conversely, that the membrane specifically affects the amyloid assembly. The reported effect of this bacterial master regulator on membrane integrity is discussed in light of the possible consequence on small regulatory RNA-based regulation.

Analysis of HubP-dependent cell pole protein targeting in Vibrio cholerae uncovers novel motility regulators

In rod-shaped bacteria, the emergence and maintenance of long-axis cell polarity is involved in key cellular processes such as cell cycle, division, environmental sensing and flagellar motility among others. Many bacteria achieve cell pole differentiation through the use of polar landmark proteins acting as scaffolds for the recruitment of functional macromolecular assemblies. In Vibrio cholerae a large membrane-tethered protein, HubP, specifically interacts with proteins involved in chromosome segregation, chemotaxis and flagellar biosynthesis. Here we used comparative proteomics, genetic and imaging approaches to identify additional HubP partners and demonstrate that at least six more proteins are subject to HubP-dependent polar localization. These include a cell-wall remodeling enzyme (DacB), a likely chemotaxis sensory protein (HlyB), two presumably cytosolic proteins of unknown function (VC1210 and VC1380) and two membrane-bound proteins, named here MotV and MotW, that exhibit distinct effects on chemotactic motility. We show that while both ΔmotW and ΔmotV mutants retain monotrichous flagellation, they present significant to severe motility defects when grown in soft agar. Video-tracking experiments further reveal that ΔmotV cells can swim in liquid environments but are unable to tumble or penetrate a semisolid matrix, whereas a motW deletion affects both tumbling frequency and swimming speed. Motility suppressors and gene co-occurrence analyses reveal co-evolutionary linkages between MotV, a subset of non-canonical CheV proteins and flagellar C-ring components FliG and FliM, whereas MotW regulatory inputs appear to intersect with specific c-di-GMP signaling pathways. Together, these results reveal an ever more versatile role for the landmark cell pole organizer HubP and identify novel mechanisms of motility regulation.

Cell polarity is the result of controlled asymmetric distribution of protein macrocomplexes, genetic material, membrane lipids and cellular metabolites, and can play crucial physiological roles not only in multicellular organisms but also in unicellular bacteria. In the opportunistic cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae, the polar landmark protein HubP tethers key actors in chromosome segregation, chemotaxis and flagellar biosynthesis and thus converts the cell pole into an important functional microdomain for cell proliferation, environmental sensing and adaptation between free-living and pathogenic life-styles. Using a comparative proteomics approach, we here-in present a comprehensive analysis of HubP-dependent cell pole protein sorting and identify novel HubP partners including ones likely involved in cell wall remodeling (DacB), chemotaxis (HlyB) and motility regulation (MotV and MotW). Unlike previous studies which have identified early roles for HubP in flagellar assembly, functional, genetic and phylogenetic analyses of its MotV and MotW partners suggest a direct role in flagellar rotary mechanics and provide new insights into the coevolution and functional interdependence of chemotactic signaling, bacterial motility and biofilm formation.

In Vivo Visualization of Mobile mRNA Particles in Plants Using BglG

Cells have developed mechanisms for cytoplasmic RNA transport and localization that participate in the regulation and subcellular localization of protein synthesis. In addition, plants can exchange RNA molecules between cells through plasmodesmata and to distant tissues in the phloem. These mechanisms are hijacked by RNA viruses to establish their replication complexes and to disseminate their genomes throughout the plant organism with the help of virus-encoded movement proteins (MP). Live imaging of RNA molecules is a fundamental approach to understand the regulation and molecular basis of these processes. The most widely used experimental systems for the in vivo visualization of genetically encoded RNA molecules are based on fluorescently tagged RNA binding proteins that bind to specific motifs inserted into the RNA, thus allowing the tracking of the specific RNA molecule by fluorescent microscopy. Recently, we developed the use of the E. coli RNA binding protein BglG for the imaging of RNAs tagged with BglG-binding sites in planta. We describe here the detailed method by which we use this in vivo RNA tagging system for the real-time imaging of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) MP mRNA.

Bacterial RNA chaperones and chaperone-like riboregulators: behind the scenes of RNA-mediated regulation of cellular metabolism

In all domains of life, RNA chaperones safeguard and guide the fate of the cellular RNA pool. RNA chaperones comprise structurally diverse proteins that ensure proper folding, stability, and ribonuclease resistance of RNA, and they support regulatory activities mediated by RNA. RNA chaperones constitute a topologically diverse group of proteins that often present an unstructured region and bind RNA with limited nucleotide sequence preferences. In bacteria, three main proteins - Hfq, ProQ, and CsrA - have been shown to regulate numerous complex processes, including bacterial growth, stress response and virulence. Hfq and ProQ have well-studied activities as global chaperones with pleiotropic impact, while CsrA has a chaperone-like role with more defined riboregulatory function. Here, we describe relevant novel insights into their common features, including RNA binding properties, unstructured domains, and interplay with other proteins important to RNA metabolism.

RNase III, Ribosome Biogenesis and Beyond

The ribosome is the universal catalyst for protein synthesis. Despite extensive studies, the diversity of structures and functions of this ribonucleoprotein is yet to be fully understood. Deciphering the biogenesis of the ribosome in a step-by-step manner revealed that this complexity is achieved through a plethora of effectors involved in the maturation and assembly of ribosomal RNAs and proteins. Conserved from bacteria to eukaryotes, double-stranded specific RNase III enzymes play a large role in the regulation of gene expression and the processing of ribosomal RNAs. In this review, we describe the canonical role of RNase III in the biogenesis of the ribosome comparing conserved and unique features from bacteria to eukaryotes. Furthermore, we report additional roles in ribosome biogenesis re-enforcing the importance of RNase III.

Real-Time Messenger RNA Dynamics in Bacillus subtilis

Messenger RNA molecules have been localized to different positions in cells and have been followed by time-lapse microscopy. We have used MS2-mVenus-labeled mRNA and single-particle tracking to obtain information on the dynamics of single-mRNA molecules in real time. Using single-molecule tracking, we show that several mRNA molecules visualized via two MS2-binding sites and MS2-mVenus expressed in Bacillus subtilis cells show free diffusion through the entire cell and constrained motion predominantly close to the cell membrane and at the polar regions of the cells. Because constrained motion of mRNAs likely reflects molecules complexed with ribosomes, our data support the idea that translation occurs at sites surrounding the nucleoids. Squared displacement analyses show the existence of at least two distinct populations of molecules with different diffusion constants or possibly of three populations, for example, freely mobile mRNAs, mRNAs in transition complexes, or in complex with polysomes. Diffusion constants between differently sized mRNAs did not differ dramatically and were much lower than that of cytosolic proteins. These data agree with the large size of mRNA molecules and suggest that, within the viscous cytoplasm, size variations do not translate into mobility differences. However, at observed diffusion constants, mRNA molecules would be able to reach all positions within cells in a frame of seconds. We did not observe strong differences in the location of confined motion for mRNAs encoding mostly soluble or membrane proteins, indicating that there is no strong bias for localization of membrane protein-encoding transcripts for the cell membrane.

The Subcellular Proteome of a Planctomycetes Bacterium Shows That Newly Evolved Proteins Have Distinct Fractionation Patterns

The Planctomycetes bacteria have unique cell architectures with heavily invaginated membranes as confirmed by three-dimensional models reconstructed from FIB-SEM images of Tuwongella immobilis and Gemmata obscuriglobus. The subcellular proteome of T. immobilis was examined by differential solubilization followed by LC-MS/MS analysis, which identified 1569 proteins in total. The Tris-soluble fraction contained mostly cytoplasmic proteins, while inner and outer membrane proteins were found in the Triton X-100 and SDS-soluble fractions, respectively. For comparisons, the subcellular proteome of Escherichia coli was also examined using the same methodology. A notable difference in the overall fractionation pattern of the two species was a fivefold higher number of predicted cytoplasmic proteins in the SDS-soluble fraction in T. immobilis. One category of such proteins is represented by innovations in the Planctomycetes lineage, including unique sets of serine/threonine kinases and extracytoplasmic sigma factors with WD40 repeat domains for which no homologs are present in E. coli. Other such proteins are members of recently expanded protein families in which the newly evolved paralog with a new domain structure is recovered from the SDS-soluble fraction, while other paralogs may have similar domain structures and fractionation patterns as the single homolog in E. coli. The expanded protein families in T. immobilis include enzymes involved in replication-repair processes as well as in rRNA and tRNA modification and degradation. These results show that paralogization and domain shuffling have yielded new proteins with distinct fractionation characteristics. Understanding the molecular intricacies of these adaptive changes might aid in the development of a model for the evolution of cellular complexity.

Wisdom of the crowds: A suggested polygenic plan for small-RNA-mediated regulation in bacteria

The omnigenic/polygenic theory, which states that complex traits are not shaped by single/few genes, but by situation-specific large networks, offers an explanation for a major enigma in microbiology: deletion of specific small RNAs (sRNAs) playing key roles in various aspects of bacterial physiology, including virulence and antibiotic resistance, results in surprisingly subtle phenotypes. A recent study uncovered polar accumulation of most sRNAs upon osmotic stress, the majority not known to be involved in the applied stress. Here we show that cells deleted for a handful of pole-enriched sRNAs exhibit fitness defect in several stress conditions, as opposed to single, double, or triple sRNA-knockouts, implying that regulation by sRNA relies on sets of genes. Moreover, analysis of RNA-seq data of Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium exposed to antibiotics and/or infection-relevant conditions reveals the involvement of multiple sRNAs in all cases, in line with the existence of a polygenic plan for sRNA-mediated regulation.

RNA imaging in bacteria

The spatiotemporal regulation of gene expression plays an essential role in many biological processes. Recently, several imaging-based RNA labeling and detection methods, both in fixed and live cells, were developed and now enable the study of transcript abundance, localization and dynamics. Here, we review the main single-cell techniques for RNA visualization with fluorescence microscopy and describe their applications in bacteria.

Trans-Acting Small RNAs and Their Effects on Gene Expression in Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica

The last few decades have led to an explosion in our understanding of the major roles that small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) play in regulatory circuits and the responses to stress in many bacterial species. Much of the foundational work was carried out with Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The studies of these organisms provided an overview of how the sRNAs function and their impact on bacterial physiology, serving as a blueprint for sRNA biology in many other prokaryotes. They also led to the development of new technologies. In this chapter, we first summarize how these sRNAs were identified, defining them in the process. We discuss how they are regulated and how they act and provide selected examples of their roles in regulatory circuits and the consequences of this regulation. Throughout, we summarize the methodologies that were developed to identify and study the regulatory RNAs, most of which are applicable to other bacteria. Newly updated databases of the known sRNAs in E. coli K-12 and S. enterica Typhimurium SL1344 serve as a reference point for much of the discussion and, hopefully, as a resource for readers and for future experiments to address open questions raised in this review.

Riboregulation in the Major Gastric Pathogen Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is a Gram-negative bacterial pathogen that colonizes the stomach of about half of the human population worldwide. Infection by H. pylori is generally acquired during childhood and this bacterium rapidly establishes a persistent colonization. H. pylori causes chronic gastritis that, in some cases, progresses into peptic ulcer disease or adenocarcinoma that is responsible for about 800,000 deaths in the world every year. H. pylori has evolved efficient adaptive strategies to colonize the stomach, a particularly hostile acidic environment. Few transcriptional regulators are encoded by the small H. pylori genome and post-transcriptional regulation has been proposed as a major level of control of gene expression in this pathogen. The transcriptome and transcription start sites (TSSs) of H. pylori strain 26695 have been defined at the genome level. This revealed the existence of a total of 1,907 TSSs among which more than 900 TSSs for non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including 60 validated small RNAs (sRNAs) and abundant anti-sense RNAs, few of which have been experimentally validated. An RNA degradosome was shown to play a central role in the control of mRNA and antisense RNA decay in H. pylori. Riboregulation, genetic regulation by RNA, has also been revealed and depends both on antisense RNAs and small RNAs. Known examples will be presented in this review. Antisense RNA regulation was reported for some virulence factors and for several type I toxin antitoxin systems, one of which controls the morphological transition of H. pylori spiral shape to round coccoids. Interestingly, the few documented cases of small RNA-based regulation suggest that their mechanisms do not follow the same rules that were well established in the model organism Escherichia coli. First, the genome of H. pylori encodes none of the two well-described RNA chaperones, Hfq and ProQ that are important for riboregulation in several organisms. Second, some of the reported small RNAs target, through "rheostat"-like mechanisms, repeat-rich stretches in the 5'-untranslated region of genes encoding important virulence factors. In conclusion, there are still many unanswered questions about the extent and underlying mechanisms of riboregulation in H. pylori but recent publications highlighted original mechanisms making this important pathogen an interesting study model.

Next-Generation Antibiotics, Bacteriophage Endolysins, and Nanomaterials for Combating Pathogens

This review presents various strategies to fight causative agents of infectious diseases. Species-specific programmable RNA-containing antibiotics open up new possibilities for creating next-generation of personalized drugs based on microbiome editing and can serve as a new tool for selective elimination of pathogenic bacterial species while keeping intact the rest of microbiota. Another promising approach in combating bacterial infections is genome editing using the CRISPR-Cas systems. Expanding knowledge on the molecular mechanisms of innate immunity has been actively used for developing new antimicrobials. However, obvious risks of using antibiotic adjuvants aimed at activation of the host immune system include development of the autoimmune response with subsequent organ damage. To avoid these risks, it is essential to elucidate action mechanisms of the specific ligands and signal molecules used as components of the hybrid antibiotics. Bacteriophage endolysins are also considered as effective antimicrobials against antibiotic-resistant bacteria, metabolically inactive persisters, and microbial biofilms. Despite significant advances in the design of implants with antibacterial properties, the problem of postoperative infections still remains. Different nanomodifications of the implant surface have been designed to reduce bacterial contamination. Here, we review bactericidal, fungicidal, and immunomodulating properties of compounds used for the implant surface nanomodifications, such as silver, boron nitride nanomaterials, nanofibers, and nanogalvanic materials.

The Dynamic SecYEG Translocon

The spatial and temporal coordination of protein transport is an essential cornerstone of the bacterial adaptation to different environmental conditions. By adjusting the protein composition of extra-cytosolic compartments, like the inner and outer membranes or the periplasmic space, protein transport mechanisms help shaping protein homeostasis in response to various metabolic cues. The universally conserved SecYEG translocon acts at the center of bacterial protein transport and mediates the translocation of newly synthesized proteins into and across the cytoplasmic membrane. The ability of the SecYEG translocon to transport an enormous variety of different substrates is in part determined by its ability to interact with multiple targeting factors, chaperones and accessory proteins. These interactions are crucial for the assisted passage of newly synthesized proteins from the cytosol into the different bacterial compartments. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about SecYEG-mediated protein transport, primarily in the model organism Escherichia coli, and describe the dynamic interaction of the SecYEG translocon with its multiple partner proteins. We furthermore highlight how protein transport is regulated and explore recent developments in using the SecYEG translocon as an antimicrobial target.

Optimization of a bacterial three-hybrid assay through in vivo titration of an RNA-DNA adapter protein

Noncoding RNAs regulate gene expression in every domain of life. In bacteria, small RNAs (sRNAs) regulate gene expression in response to stress and are often assisted by RNA-chaperone proteins, such as Hfq. We have recently developed a bacterial three-hybrid (B3H) assay that detects the strong binding interactions of certain E. coli sRNAs with proteins Hfq and ProQ. Despite the promise of this system, the signal-to-noise has made it challenging to detect weaker interactions. In this work, we use Hfq-sRNA interactions as a model system to optimize the B3H assay, so that weaker RNA-protein interactions can be more reliably detected. We find that the concentration of the RNA-DNA adapter is an important parameter in determining the signal in the system and have modified the plasmid expressing this component to tune its concentration to optimal levels. In addition, we have systematically perturbed the binding affinity of Hfq-RNA interactions to define, for the first time, the relationship between B3H signal and in vitro binding energetics. The new pAdapter construct presented here substantially expands the range of detectable interactions in the B3H assay, broadening its utility. This improved assay will increase the likelihood of identifying novel protein-RNA interactions with the B3H system and will facilitate exploration of the binding mechanisms of these interactions.

The largely unexplored biology of small proteins in pro- and eukaryotes

The large abundance of small open reading frames (smORFs) in prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes and the plethora of smORF-encoded small proteins became only apparent with the constant advancements in bioinformatic, genomic, proteomic, and biochemical tools. Small proteins are typically defined as proteins of < 50 amino acids in prokaryotes and of less than 100 amino acids in eukaryotes, and their importance for cell physiology and cellular adaptation is only beginning to emerge. In contrast to antimicrobial peptides, which are secreted by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells for combatting pathogens and competitors, small proteins act within the producing cell mainly by stabilizing protein assemblies and by modifying the activity of larger proteins. Production of small proteins is frequently linked to stress conditions or environmental changes, and therefore, cells seem to use small proteins as intracellular modifiers for adjusting cell metabolism to different intra- and extracellular cues. However, the size of small proteins imposes a major challenge for the cellular machinery required for protein folding and intracellular trafficking and recent data indicate that small proteins can engage distinct trafficking pathways. In the current review, we describe the diversity of small proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, highlight distinct and common features, and illustrate how they are handled by the protein trafficking machineries in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Finally, we also discuss future topics of research on this fascinating but largely unexplored group of proteins.

Subcellular Architecture of the xyl Gene Expression Flow of the TOL Catabolic Plasmid of Pseudomonas putida mt-2

Despite intensive research on the biochemical and regulatory features of the archetypal catabolic TOL system borne by pWW0 of Pseudomonas putida strain mt-2, the physical arrangement and tridimensional logic of the xyl gene expression flow remains unknown. In this work, the spatial distribution of specific xyl mRNAs with respect to the host nucleoid, the TOL plasmid, and the ribosomal pool has been investigated. In situ hybridization of target transcripts with fluorescent oligonucleotide probes revealed that xyl mRNAs cluster in discrete foci, adjacent but clearly separated from the TOL plasmid and the cell nucleoid. Also, they colocalize with ribosome-rich domains of the intracellular milieu. This arrangement was maintained even when the xyl genes were artificially relocated to different chromosomal locations. The same held true when genes were expressed through a heterologous T7 polymerase-based system, which likewise led to mRNA foci outside the DNA. In contrast, rifampin treatment, known to ease crowding, blurred the confinement of xyl transcripts. This suggested that xyl mRNAs exit from their initiation sites to move to ribosome-rich points for translation—rather than being translated coupled to transcription. Moreover, the results suggest the distinct subcellular motion of xyl mRNAs results from both innate properties of the sequences and the physical forces that keep the ribosomal pool away from the nucleoid in P. putida. This scenario is discussed within the background of current knowledge on the three-dimensional organization of the gene expression flow in other bacteria and the environmental lifestyle of this soil microorganism.

Dynamic interactions between the RNA chaperone Hfq, small regulatory RNAs, and mRNAs in live bacterial cells

RNA-binding proteins play myriad roles in regulating RNAs and RNA-mediated functions. In bacteria, the RNA chaperone Hfq is an important post-transcriptional gene regulator. Using live-cell super-resolution imaging, we can distinguish Hfq binding to different sizes of cellular RNAs. We demonstrate that under normal growth conditions, Hfq exhibits widespread mRNA-binding activity, with the distal face of Hfq contributing mostly to the mRNA binding in vivo. In addition, sRNAs can either co-occupy Hfq with the mRNA as a ternary complex, or displace the mRNA from Hfq in a binding face-dependent manner, suggesting mechanisms through which sRNAs rapidly access Hfq to induce sRNA-mediated gene regulation. Finally, our data suggest that binding of Hfq to certain mRNAs through its distal face can recruit RNase E to promote turnover of these mRNAs in a sRNA-independent manner, and such regulatory function of Hfq can be decoyed by sRNA competitors that bind strongly at the distal face.

Messenger RNAs or mRNAs are molecules that the cell uses to transfer the information stored in the cell’s DNA so it can be used to make proteins. Bacteria can regulate their levels of mRNA molecules, and they can therefore control how many proteins are being made, by producing a different type of RNA called small regulatory RNAs or sRNAs. Each sRNA can bind to several specific mRNA targets, and lead to their degradation by an enzyme called RNase E. Certain bacterial RNA-binding proteins, such as Hfq, protect sRNAs from being degraded, and help them find their mRNA targets.

Hfq is abundant in bacteria. It is critical for bacterial growth under harsh conditions and it is involved in the process through which pathogenic bacteria infect cells. However, it is outnumbered by the many different RNA molecules in the cell, which compete for binding to the protein. It is not clear how Hfq prioritizes the different RNAs, or how binding to Hfq alters RNA regulation. Park, Prévost et al. imaged live bacterial cells to see how Hfq binds to RNA strands of different sizes.

The experiments revealed that, when bacteria are growing normally, Hfq is mainly bound to mRNA molecules, and it can recruit RNase E to speed up mRNA degradation without the need for sRNAs. Park, Prévost et al. also showed that sRNAs could bind to Hfq by either replacing the bound mRNA or co-binding alongside it. The sRNA molecules that strongly bind Hfq can compete against mRNA for binding, and thus slow down the degradation of certain mRNAs.

Hfq could be a potential drug target for treating bacterial infections. Understanding how it interacts with other molecules in bacteria could provide help in the development of new therapeutics. These findings suggest that a designed RNA that binds strongly to Hfq could disrupt its regulatory roles in bacteria, killing them. This could be a feasible drug design opportunity to counter the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Coupled Transcription-Translation in Prokaryotes: An Old Couple With New Surprises

Coupled transcription-translation (CTT) is a hallmark of prokaryotic gene expression. CTT occurs when ribosomes associate with and initiate translation of mRNAs whose transcription has not yet concluded, therefore forming "RNAP.mRNA.ribosome" complexes. CTT is a well-documented phenomenon that is involved in important gene regulation processes, such as attenuation and operon polarity. Despite the progress in our understanding of the cellular signals that coordinate CTT, certain aspects of its molecular architecture remain controversial. Additionally, new information on the spatial segregation between the transcriptional and the translational machineries in certain species, and on the capability of certain mRNAs to localize translation-independently, questions the unanimous occurrence of CTT. Furthermore, studies where transcription and translation were artificially uncoupled showed that transcription elongation can proceed in a translation-independent manner. Here, we review studies supporting the occurrence of CTT and findings questioning its extent, as well as discuss mechanisms that may explain both coupling and uncoupling, e.g., chromosome relocation and the involvement of cis- or trans-acting elements, such as small RNAs and RNA-binding proteins. These mechanisms impact RNA localization, stability, and translation. Understanding the two options by which genes can be expressed and their consequences should shed light on a new layer of control of bacterial transcripts fate.

Tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent localization of TmaR that controls activity of a major bacterial sugar regulator by polar sequestration

The poles of Escherichia coli cells are emerging as hubs for major sensory systems, but the polar determinants that allocate their components to the pole are largely unknown. Here, we describe the discovery of a previously unannotated protein, TmaR, which localizes to the E. coli cell pole when phosphorylated on a tyrosine residue. TmaR is shown here to control the subcellular localization and activity of the general PTS protein Enzyme I (EI) by binding and polar sequestration of EI, thus regulating sugar uptake and metabolism. Depletion or overexpression of TmaR results in EI release from the pole or enhanced recruitment to the pole, which leads to increasing or decreasing the rate of sugar consumption, respectively. Notably, phosphorylation of TmaR is required to release EI and enable its activity. Like TmaR, the ability of EI to be recruited to the pole depends on phosphorylation of one of its tyrosines. In addition to hyperactivity in sugar consumption, the absence of TmaR also leads to detrimental effects on the ability of cells to survive in mild acidic conditions. Our results suggest that this survival defect, which is sugar- and EI-dependent, reflects the difficulty of cells lacking TmaR to enter stationary phase. Our study identifies TmaR as the first, to our knowledge, E. coli protein reported to localize in a tyrosine-dependent manner and to control the activity of other proteins by their polar sequestration and release.

An RNA biology perspective on species-specific programmable RNA antibiotics

Our body is colonized by a vast array of bacteria the sum of which forms our microbiota. The gut alone harbors >1,000 bacterial species. An understanding of their individual or synergistic contributions to human health and disease demands means to interfere with their functions on the species level. Most of the currently available antibiotics are broad-spectrum, thus too unspecific for a selective depletion of a single species of interest from the microbiota. Programmable RNA antibiotics in the form of short antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) promise to achieve precision manipulation of bacterial communities. These ASOs are coupled to small peptides that carry them inside the bacteria to silence mRNAs of essential genes, for example, to target antibiotic-resistant pathogens as an alternative to standard antibiotics. There is already proof-of-principle with diverse bacteria, but many open questions remain with respect to true species specificity, potential off-targeting, choice of peptides for delivery, bacterial resistance mechanisms and the host response. While there is unlikely a one-fits-all solution for all microbiome species, I will discuss how recent progress in bacterial RNA biology may help to accelerate the development of programmable RNA antibiotics for microbiome editing and other applications.

Bacterial Vivisection: How Fluorescence-Based Imaging Techniques Shed a Light on the Inner Workings of Bacteria

The rise in fluorescence-based imaging techniques over the past 3 decades has improved the ability of researchers to scrutinize live cell biology at increased spatial and temporal resolution. In microbiology, these real-time vivisections structurally changed the view on the bacterial cell away from the "watery bag of enzymes" paradigm toward the perspective that these organisms are as complex as their eukaryotic counterparts. Capitalizing on the enormous potential of (time-lapse) fluorescence microscopy and the ever-extending pallet of corresponding probes, initial breakthroughs were made in unraveling the localization of proteins and monitoring real-time gene expression. However, later it became clear that the potential of this technique extends much further, paving the way for a focus-shift from observing single events within bacterial cells or populations to obtaining a more global picture at the intra- and intercellular level. In this review, we outline the current state of the art in fluorescence-based vivisection of bacteria and provide an overview of important case studies to exemplify how to use or combine different strategies to gain detailed information on the cell's physiology. The manuscript therefore consists of two separate (but interconnected) parts that can be read and consulted individually. The first part focuses on the fluorescent probe pallet and provides a perspective on modern methodologies for microscopy using these tools. The second section of the review takes the reader on a tour through the bacterial cell from cytoplasm to outer shell, describing strategies and methods to highlight architectural features and overall dynamics within cells.

Posttranslational insertion of small membrane proteins by the bacterial signal recognition particle

Small membrane proteins represent a largely unexplored yet abundant class of proteins in pro- and eukaryotes. They essentially consist of a single transmembrane domain and are associated with stress response mechanisms in bacteria. How these proteins are inserted into the bacterial membrane is unknown. Our study revealed that in Escherichia coli, the 27-amino-acid-long model protein YohP is recognized by the signal recognition particle (SRP), as indicated by in vivo and in vitro site-directed cross-linking. Cross-links to SRP were also observed for a second small membrane protein, the 33-amino-acid-long YkgR. However, in contrast to the canonical cotranslational recognition by SRP, SRP was found to bind to YohP posttranslationally. In vitro protein transport assays in the presence of a SecY inhibitor and proteoliposome studies demonstrated that SRP and its receptor FtsY are essential for the posttranslational membrane insertion of YohP by either the SecYEG translocon or by the YidC insertase. Furthermore, our data showed that the yohP mRNA localized preferentially and translation-independently to the bacterial membrane in vivo. In summary, our data revealed that YohP engages an unique SRP-dependent posttranslational insertion pathway that is likely preceded by an mRNA targeting step. This further highlights the enormous plasticity of bacterial protein transport machineries.

Small membrane proteins represent a largely unexplored yet abundant class of proteins, but how they are inserted into the bacterial membrane is unknown. This study identifies a novel posttranslational protein transport pathway that relies on the signal recognition particle and the SecYEG translocon/YidC insertase.

Network Rewiring: Physiological Consequences of Reciprocally Exchanging the Physical Locations and Growth-Phase-Dependent Expression Patterns of the Salmonella fis and dps Genes

We assessed the impact on Salmonella physiology of reciprocally translocating the genes encoding the Fis and Dps nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) and of inverting their growth-phase production patterns such that Fis was produced in stationary phase (like Dps) and Dps was produced in exponential phase (like Fis). Changes to peak binding of Fis were detected by ChIP-seq on the chromosome, as were widespread impacts on the transcriptome, especially when Fis production mimicked Dps production. Virulence gene expression and the expression of a virulence phenotype were altered. Overall, these radical changes to NAP gene expression were well tolerated, revealing the robust and well-buffered nature of global gene regulation networks in the bacterium.

The Fis nucleoid-associated protein controls the expression of a large and diverse regulon of genes in Gram-negative bacteria. Fis production is normally maximal in bacteria during the early exponential phase of batch culture growth, becoming almost undetectable by the onset of stationary phase. We tested the effect on the Fis regulatory network in Salmonella of moving the complete fis gene from its usual location near the origin of chromosomal replication to the position normally occupied by the dps gene in the right macrodomain of the chromosome, and vice versa, creating the gene exchange (GX) strain. In a parallel experiment, we tested the effect of rewiring the Fis regulatory network by placing the fis open reading frame under the control of the stationary-phase-activated dps promoter at the dps genetic location within the right macrodomain, and vice versa, creating the open reading frame exchange (OX) strain. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) was used to measure global Fis protein binding levels and to determine gene expression patterns. Strain GX showed few changes compared with the wild type, although we did detect increased Fis binding at Ter, accompanied by reduced binding at Ori. Strain OX displayed a more pronounced version of this distorted Fis protein-binding pattern together with numerous alterations in the expression of genes in the Fis regulon. OX, but not GX, had a reduced ability to infect cultured mammalian cells. These findings illustrate the inherent robustness of the Fis regulatory network with respect to the effects of rewiring based on gene repositioning alone and emphasize the importance of fis expression signals in phenotypic determination.

The RNA-binding protein Hfq assembles into foci-like structures in nitrogen starved Escherichia coli

The initial adaptive responses to nutrient depletion in bacteria often occur at the level of gene expression. Hfq is an RNA-binding protein present in diverse bacterial lineages that contributes to many different aspects of RNA metabolism during gene expression. Using photoactivated localization microscopy and single-molecule tracking, we demonstrate that Hfq forms a distinct and reversible focus-like structure in Escherichia coli specifically experiencing long-term nitrogen starvation. Using the ability of T7 phage to replicate in nitrogen-starved bacteria as a biological probe of E. coli cell function during nitrogen starvation, we demonstrate that Hfq foci have a role in the adaptive response of E. coli to long-term nitrogen starvation. We further show that Hfq foci formation does not depend on gene expression once nitrogen starvation has set in and occurs indepen-dently of the transcription factor N-regulatory protein C, which activates the initial adaptive response to N starvation in E. coli These results serve as a paradigm to demonstrate that bacterial adaptation to long-term nutrient starvation can be spatiotemporally coordinated and can occur independently of de novo gene expression during starvation.

RNA localization in prokaryotes: Where, when, how, and why

Only recently has it been recognized that the transcriptome of bacteria and archaea can be spatiotemporally regulated. All types of prokaryotic transcripts-rRNAs, tRNAs, mRNAs, and regulatory RNAs-may acquire specific localization and these patterns can be temporally regulated. In some cases bacterial RNAs reside in the vicinity of the transcription site, but in many others, transcripts show distinct localizations to the cytoplasm, the inner membrane, or the pole of rod-shaped species. This localization, which often overlaps with that of the encoded proteins, can be achieved either in a translation-dependent or translation-independent fashion. The latter implies that RNAs carry sequence-level features that determine their final localization with the aid of RNA-targeting factors. Localization of transcripts regulates their posttranscriptional fate by affecting their degradation and processing, translation efficiency, sRNA-mediated regulation, and/or propensity to undergo RNA modifications. By facilitating complex assembly and liquid-liquid phase separation, RNA localization is not only a consequence but also a driver of subcellular spatiotemporal complexity. We foresee that in the coming years the study of RNA localization in prokaryotes will produce important novel insights regarding the fundamental understanding of membrane-less subcellular organization and lead to practical outputs with biotechnological and therapeutic implications. This article is categorized under: RNA Export and Localization > RNA Localization Regulatory RNAs/RNAi/Riboswitches > Regulatory RNAs RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Protein-RNA Interactions: Functional Implications.

New sequencing methodologies reveal interplay between multiple RNA-binding proteins and their RNAs

It is now established that base-pairing regulatory RNAs are key players in post-transcriptional regulatory networks where they affect the translation and/or stability of their target RNAs. In many cases, the base-pairing between two RNAs is facilitated by an RNA-binding protein (RBP) that serves as an RNA chaperone. Recent advances in sequencing methods have revealed the RNA populations bound by the RBPs, yielding insights valuable into regulatory networks. Further analyses of these networks can improve our understanding of the roles played by RBPs in the regulation of gene expression by regulatory RNAs, especially when multiple RBPs are involved. For example, using an RNA sequencing-based methodology that captures RNA-RNA pairs on RBP, an interplay between two RBPs in bacteria that compete on the same RNA-RNA pair was revealed. In this case, one protein promotes negative regulation of the target RNA, while the second protein can block this regulation. In this mini-review, I outline the exciting future directions that can be taken to deepen our understanding of the roles played by RBPs in post-transcriptional regulation, and discuss how the different sequencing methods can assist in deciphering the relationships among RBPs, and between the RBPs and the RNAs they bind. Having a more detailed picture of the RBPs-RNAs network will elucidate how bacteria can have nuanced control of gene expression, critical for survival in the varied environments in which bacteria live.

Navigation through the twists and turns of RNA sequencing technologies: Application to bacterial regulatory RNAs

Discovered in the 1980s, small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are now considered key actors in virtually all aspects of bacterial physiology and virulence. Together with transcriptional and translational regulatory proteins, they integrate and often are hubs of complex regulatory networks, responsible for bacterial response/adaptation to various perceived stimuli. The recent development of powerful RNA sequencing technologies has facilitated the identification and characterization of sRNAs (length, structure and expression conditions) and their RNA targets in several bacteria. Nevertheless, it could be very difficult for non-experts to understand the advantages and drawbacks related to each offered option and, consequently, to make an informed choice. Therefore, the main goal of this review is to provide a guide to navigate through the twists and turns of high-throughput RNA sequencing technologies, with a specific focus on those applied to the study of sRNAs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: RNA and gene control in bacteria edited by Dr. M. Guillier and F. Repoila.