Climate and land use change effects on soil erosion in two small agricultural catchment systems Fugnitz - Austria, Can Revull - Spain

Assessment of sediment transport in Luxiapuqu watershed using RUSLE-TLSD and InSAR techniques: Yarlung Tsangpo River, China

The Yarlung Tsangpo River Basin is characterized by its intricate topography and a significant presence of erosive materials. These often coincide with heavy localized precipitation, resulting in pronounced hydraulic erosion and geological hazards in mountainous regions. To tackle this challenge, we integrated the RUSLE-TLSD (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation-Transportation-limited sediment delivery) model with InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) data, aiming to explore the sediment transport process and pinpoint hazard-prone sites within mountainous small watershed. The RUSLE-TLSD model aids in evaluating multi-year sediment transport dynamics in mountainous zones. And, the InSAR data precisely delineates changes in sediment scouring and siltation at sites vulnerable to hazards. Our research estimates that the potential average soil erosion within the watershed stands at 52.33 t/(hm2 a), with a net soil erosion of 0.69 t/(hm2 a), the sediment transport pathways manifest within the watershed's gullies and channels. Around 4.32% of the watershed area undergoes sedimentation, predominantly at the base of slopes and within channels. Notably, areas (d) and (e) emerge as the most susceptible to disasters within the watershed. Further analysis of the InSAR data highlighted four regions in the typical area (e) from 2017 that are either sedimentation- or erosion-prone, referred to as "hotspots." Among them, R1 exhibits a strong interplay between water and sediment, rendering it highly sensitive to environmental factors. In contrast, R4, characterized by a sharp bend in siltation, remains relatively impervious to external elements. The NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) stands out as the pivotal determinant influencing sediment transport within the watershed, exerting a pronounced impact on the outlet section, especially in spring. By employing this approach, we gained a deeper understanding of sediment transport mechanisms and potential hazards in small watershed in uninformative mountainous areas. This study furnishes a robust scientific framework beneficial for erosion mitigation and disaster surveillance in mountainous watersheds.

Soil erosion vulnerability and soil loss estimation for Siran River watershed, Pakistan: an integrated GIS and remote sensing approach

Soil erosion is a problematic issue with detrimental effects on agriculture and water resources, particularly in countries like Pakistan that heavily rely on farming. The condition of major reservoirs, such as Tarbela, Mangla, and Warsak, is crucial for ensuring an adequate water supply for agriculture in Pakistan. The Kunhar and Siran rivers flow practically parallel, and the environment surrounding both rivers' basins is nearly identical. The Kunhar River is one of KP's dirtiest rivers that carries 0.1 million tons of suspended sediment to the Mangla reservoir. In contrast, the Siran River basin is largely unexplored. Therefore, this study focuses on the Siran River basin in the district of Manshera, Pakistan, aiming to assess annual soil loss and identify erosion-prone regions. Siran River average annual total soil loss million tons/year is 0.154. To achieve this, the researchers integrate Geographical Information System (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) data with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model. Five key variables, rainfall, land use land cover (LULC), slope, soil types, and crop management, were examined to estimate the soil loss. The findings indicate diverse soil loss causes, and the basin's northern parts experience significant soil erosion. The study estimated that annual soil loss from the Siran River basin is 0.154 million tons with an average rate of 0.871 tons per hectare per year. RUSLE model combined with GIS/RS is an efficient technique for calculating soil loss and identifying erosion-prone areas. Stakeholders such as policymakers, farmers, and conservationists can utilize this information to target efforts and reduce soil loss in specific areas. Overall, the study's results have the potential to advance initiatives aimed at safeguarding the Siran River watershed and its vital resources. Protecting soil resources and ensuring adequate water supplies are crucial for sustainable agriculture and economic development in Pakistan.

Soil erosion and degradation assessment integrating multi-parametric methods of RUSLE model, RS, and GIS in the Shaqlawa agricultural area, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

This study evaluated soil erosion rates in the Shaqlawa district using the Geographical Information System (GIS)-based Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model. The primary objective was to identify areas within the district that are prone to significant erosion and develop appropriate soil conservation schemes accordingly. A combination of primary and secondary data from diverse sources was utilized to achieve this objective. The GIS-based RUSLE model used variables like soil erodibility (K), soil coverage (C), topographic effect (LS), rainfall runoff (R), and erosion control practices (P) to estimate the amount of soil that had been washed away in the study area. The study provided valuable information that can be used to plan and administer soil protection in the Shaqlawa district. The average yearly soil loss in the study region is estimated to be 65.66 t ha-1 year-1. The district is experiencing significant soil erosion rates, which may have detrimental effects on agricultural productivity, water quality, and environmental health. The analysis revealed that Balisan, Hiran, Shaqlawa center, and part of the Salahaddin subdistrict are the most affected areas, with high values of LS and R factors contributing to significant soil erosion rates. These results underscore the importance of soil protection and management efforts in the Shaqlawa district. The combination of the RUSLE with GIS and remote sensing techniques has been recognized as an essential, cost-effective, and highly accurate approach for estimating soil erosion.

Ecotoxicity of eluates obtained from Basamid® contaminated soils is pH dependent: A study with Hydra viridissima, Xenopus laevis and Danio rerio

Agrochemicals are mostly used to deplete pests and treat diseases in terrestrial agro-ecosystems. However, their transport through the soil, by leaching and/or runoff, may cause them to reach aquatic systems. Environmental parameters, such as soil pH, can affect this transport, by influencing the magnitude of agrochemicals degradation and chemical reaction. This work aimed at investigating the influence of soil pH on the toxicity of eluates obtained from Basamid® contaminated soils to Hydra viridissima, Xenopus laevis and Danio rerio. For this, a natural soil with pH amended to 5.5, 6.5 and 7.5, was spiked with the recommended dose (RD) of Basamid® (145 mg dazomet/kg soil) and eluates (Ba-E) were prepared with the respective species culture medium. Dilutions of the eluates (0.14-100%), obtained from the three soils (Ba-E 5.5, Ba-E 6.5 and Ba-E 7.5, corresponding to soil spiked with Basamid® RD at soil pH of 5.5, 6.5 and 7.5, respectively), were used to expose the organisms. Results showed that for H. viridissima increased soil alkalinity provoked less mortality comparatively to lower soil pH [LD_50,96h of Ba-E 5.5: 10.6% and LD_50,96h of Ba-E 7.5: 21.2%]. As for X. laevis and D. rerio Ba-E lethal ecotoxicity was similar across soil pH (LD_50,96h varied from 5.7 to 6.9% and from 2.1 to 4.3%, respectively). For malformations, 20% effect dilution (ED) in H. viridissima was significantly higher at Ba-E 7.5 (ED_20,96h: 17.4%), comparatively to Ba-E 5.5 and Ba-E 6.5 (ED_20,96h: 7.9% and 7.7%, respectively). From the three tested organisms and based on both lethal and sublethal effects, H. viridissima presented the highest tolerance to Basamid® eluates and soil pH was a major factor determining the fumigant toxicity, with higher soil pH levels inducing, lower toxicity. The eluates obtained from soils contaminated with RD of Basamid® induced severe effects to the three aquatic species.

Predicting Modified Fournier Index by Using Artificial Neural Network in Central Europe

The Modified Fournier Index (MFI) is one of the indices that can assess the erosivity of rainfall. However, the implementation of the artificial neural network (ANN) for the prediction of the MFI is still rare. In this research, climate data (monthly and yearly precipitation (p_i, P_total) (mm), daily maximum precipitation (P_d-max) (mm), monthly mean temperature (T_avg) (°C), daily maximum mean temperature (T_d-max) (°C), and daily minimum mean temperature (T_d-min) (°C)) were collected from three stations in Hungary (Budapest, Debrecen, and Pécs) between 1901 and 2020. The MFI was calculated, and then, the performance of two ANNs (multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF)) in predicting the MFI was evaluated under four scenarios. The average MFI values were between 66.30 ± 15.40 (low erosivity) in Debrecen and 75.39 ± 15.39 (low erosivity) in Pecs. The prediction of the MFI by using MLP was good (NSE_{Budapest(SC3)} = 0.71, NSE_Pécs(SC2) = 0.69). Additionally, the performance of RBF was accurate (NSE_{Debrecen(SC4)} = 0.68, NSE_Pécs(SC3) = 0.73). However, the correlation coefficient between the observed MFI and the predicted one ranged between 0.83 (Budapest (SC2-MLP)) and 0.86 (Pécs (SC3-RBF)). Interestingly, the statistical analyses promoted SC2 (P_d-max + p_i + P_total) and SC4 (P_total + T_avg + T_d-max + T_d-min) as the best scenarios for predicting MFI by using the ANN-MLP and ANN-RBF, respectively. However, the sensitivity analysis highlighted that P_total, p_i, and T_d-min had the highest relative importance in the prediction process. The output of this research promoted the ANN (MLP and RBF) as an effective tool for predicting rainfall erosivity in Central Europe.

Modeling and Mapping of Soil Water Erosion Risks in the Srou Basin (Middle Atlas, Morocco) Using the EPM Model, GIS and Magnetic Susceptibility

The Oued Srou watershed located in the Middle Atlas Mountain of Morocco has been a subject of serious soil erosion problems due to the combination of natural factors and anthropic activities. Therefore, soil erosion hazard assessment and mapping can be handy to initiate remedial measures in the area. In this study, the improved Erosion Potential Model (EPM) integrated with GIS and remote sensing techniques is employed to map and assess the vulnerability of the Oued Srou watershed to the water erosion phenomenon and its impact on the silting of the Ahmed El Hansali dam. The results of the EPM model showed that the maximum annual soil loss rates were in the range of 5-652 m3/km2/year, with an average of 49 m3/km2/year. The delivery coefficient ratio showed that about 34433 t/year of the sediments reach the outlet of the watershed. The correlation analysis between all erosion factors revealed the following order of their importance in the water erosion control: soil sensitivity to erosion, soil protection, slope, erosive state, temperature, and rainfall. The magnetic susceptibility provided results on the evolution of soils; it showed that the most degraded soils had a high erosion rate. Generally, the stable soils not eroded showed an upward increase of magnetic susceptibility values in soil profiles; the evolution of magnetic susceptibility of degraded soils is disturbed. The magnetic susceptibility has also made it possible to highlight the source zones of sediments that reach the outlet of the watershed.

The resilience of soil erosion rates under historical land use change in agroecosystems of Southern Spain

Land use change (LUC) is identified as one of the main drivers of soil erosion in the Mediterranean. However, very little information exists regarding the relationship between land use and erosion over longer time periods and on regional scales. We quantified the LUC in Southern Spain between 1956 and 2018, examining its effect on soil erosion and assessing the mitigation role of the permanent grassland (PG). The land use influence on erosion is represented by the RUSLE's C-factor, which was modelled using the Monte Carlo Method (MCM) based on historical LUC. Moreover, future LUC scenarios by 2038 were developed by binary logistic model (scFS) and by a complete conversion of PG to cropland (scPC), permanent crop (scPP) and forest and natural (scFP). Historically, Southern Spain has experienced an impressive intensification of its agricultural system. While soil loss variation is noted within the classes, no big variation is observed in cumulative erosion on a regional scale. The underlying reasons for this resilience are multifold, but mainly attributed to the fact that a small fraction of the total surface (20%), dominates total erosion (67%). The C-factor decrease in this area displays a LUC towards forest and natural area, suggesting an agriculture abandonment. On the other hand, the agricultural intensification that has taken place in the remainder of the area, contributes much less to overall soil erosion. Future LUC scenarios illustrate the importance of PG for erosion mitigation. scFS scenario does not project major changes. However, scCP and scPP, show an abrupt increase in regional erosion by 13% and 14%, while scFP shows a negligible reduction of erosion close to 0%. This allows to quantify the erosion mitigation offered by maintaining the PG and should be taken into account for future agricultural policy.

Assessment of current and future land use/cover changes in soil erosion in the Rio da Prata basin (Brazil)

In recent years, the Cerrado biome in Brazil (Brazilian savannah) has faced severe environmental problems due to abrupt changes in land use/cover (LUC), causing increased soil loss, sediment yield and water turbidity. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the impacts of soil loss and sediment delivery ratio (SDR) over the last 30 years to simulate future scenarios of soil losses from 2050 to 2100 and to investigate an episode of sediment delivery that occurred in the Rio da Prata Basin (RPB) in 2018. In this study, the following were used: an estimation of soil losses for 1986, 1999, 2007 and 2016 using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), an estimation of SDR, sediment export and sediment deposition using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model, an association of RUSLE factor C to LUC data for 2050 and 2100 based on the CA-Markov hybrid model, and an estimation of future soil erosion scenarios for 2050 and 2100. The results show that over the last 30 years (1986-2016), there has been a reduction in the areas of highly intense and severe degrees. Future soil erosion scenarios (2050-2100) showed a 13.84% increase in areas of soil loss >10 Mg ha^-1 year^-1. The results highlighted the importance of assessing the impacts of LUC changes on soil erosion and the export of sediments to agricultural watersheds in the RPB, one of the best ecotourism destinations in Brazil. In addition, the increase in soil loss in the region intensified sediment yield events and increased water turbidity. Furthermore, riparian vegetation, although preserved, was not able to protect the watercourse, showing that it is essential to adopt the best management practices in the agricultural production areas of the basin, especially where ramps are extensive or the slope is greater than 2%, to reduce the runoff velocity and control the movement of sediments on the surface towards the drainage canals. The results of this study are useful for drawing up a soil and water conservation plan for the sustainable production of agriculture and maintenance of ecosystem services in the region.

Rainfall Erosivity Impact on Sustainable Management of Agricultural Land in Changing Climate Conditions

Soil is negatively affected by many degradation factors, of which soil erosion is the most serious, affecting soil quality, crop production, and environmental components. Soil quality is an issue dealt with in the New European Green Deal. In order to meet the set goals, it will be necessary to address soil degradation and water erosion in the agricultural landscape, and increase the area of green infrastructure within the landscape (e.g., fragments of woodland, windbreaks, and grassland). In this context, climate change is also expected to affect the frequency and intensity of torrential rainfall, leading to increased runoff, reduced infiltration, and greater soil loss. Therefore, in this study, we have elaborated the issue of agricultural landscape and erosion, looking at erosion control measures necessary in dealing with existing erosion processes in an intensively farmed area with chernozem soils, and compared these with scenarios assumed for 2050. In these future scenarios, the commonly applied agrotechnical measures will not suffice to keep soil loss at a tolerable level. In the future, it will be necessary to discuss a further reduction in the size of land blocks, with the inclusion of green infrastructure in the landscape. In addition to solving problems of erosion, this would increase diversity in the area and enable sustainable agricultural management.

Impacts of Future Climate and Land Use/Cover Changes on Water-Related Ecosystem Services in Changbai Mountains, Northeast China

Sustaining ecosystem services in alpine regions is a pressing global challenge given future accelerating environmental changes. Understanding how future climate change and land use/cover change (LUCC) drive ecosystem service will be important in this challenge. However, few studies have considered the combined effects of future climate change and LUCC on ecosystem services. We assessed water yield and soil retention services and their drivers in the Changbai mountains region (CBMR) from the 2020 to 2050s using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model and factor control experiments. Water yield decreased by 2.80% and soil retention increased by 6.14% over the 30 years. Climate change decreased water yield and increased soil retention, while LUCC decreased both water yield and soil retention. The interactive effects between climate change and LUCC had relatively small inhibitory effects on water yield and large facilitation effects on soil retention. Changes in water yield were mainly attributed to climate change, while soil retention was largely influenced by interaction. Our study highlights the individual and interactive contributions of future climate change and land use to ecosystem service in the mountains region, which can provide important information for informed future land management and policy making for sustaining diverse ecosystem services.

Landscape scaling of different land-use types, geomorphological styles, vegetation regionalizations, and geographical zonings differs spatial erosion patterns in a large-scale ecological restoration watershed

Water erosion is one of the main types of soil degradation, but few quantitative estimates have been done in the soil erosion intensity grades of different landscape scaling characteristics in a large-scale ecological restoration watershed. This study comparatively illustrates the utility of high-resolution data and geospatial technique, particularly the GIS-based RUSLE model, for an improved understanding of the spatial patterns of soil erosion under different land use types, geomorphological styles, vegetational regionalizations, and geographical zonings, aiming to promote ecological sustainable watershed management in practice. Results indicate the following:(i) The soil erosion intensity grade showed an overall decreasing trend from northwest to southeast in the Jinghe River Watershed. The percentages of intense erosion and extremely intense erosion in different land use types in 2015 were significantly lower than that in 2000 except middle- and low-coverage grasslands because of the effective implementation of "Grain for Green" project. e.g., the percentage of extremely intense erosion in dry land decreased from 41.72% in 2000 to 8.99% in 2015.(ii) The mid-elevation loessial beams and hills and mid-elevation loessial tableland were both the major sources of intense erosion and extremely intense erosion, with the contribution ratio of 41.89 and 53.94% and 35.79 and 20.83% in 2000 and 44.45 and 48.99% and 36.88 and 18.72% in 2015, respectively.(iii) The intense, extremely intense and severe erosion in the temperate typical grassland subzone accounted for 32.62, 44.47, and 9.6% in 2000 and 36.74, 40.7, and 8.1% in 2015, respectively. There were no severe and extremely intense erosion in the deciduous oak forest subzone of northern and southern warm temperate. (iv) The intense, extremely intense, and severe erosion of the loessial wide valley hills accounted for 32.19, 45.27, and 8.92% in 2000 and 36.32, 41.42, and 7.48% in 2015. The intense and extremely intense erosion of the loessial tableland accounted for 40.58 and 16.02% in 2000 and 40.57 and 14.27% in 2015. More importantly, land use types can be applied to the design and implementation of a development scheme more reliably than other landscapes because the land use system is a more scientific and fine classification based on topography, soils, and vegetation correlated with geology, geomorphology, and climate. The knowledge on the fine landscape scale will be useful for comprehensive watershed management by soil scientists, agronomists, environmental scientists, land managers, and policymakers.

Ecological restoration is not sufficient for reconciling the trade-off between soil retention and water yield: A contrasting study from catchment governance perspective

Ecological restoration program (ERP) is widely recognized as an effective measure to combat land degradation and improve environmental quality. However, inappropriate ERPs lead to trade-offs between soil retention and water yield as well as conflicts of soil and water resources between the midstream and the downstream of catchment. This study aims to assess the efficiency of ERPs in soil erosion control and identify the trade-offs between soil retention and water yield through the lens of runoff and sediment regimes in contrasting catchments of the Loess Plateau (LP) and the Karst Plateau (KP). Although favorable climate and rapid vegetation restoration substantially reduced water erosion in both these areas, the hydrological responses were not the same because of climate differences. In the arid LP, water and energy variables correlated closely with vegetation cover. Excessive afforestation programs in drylands increased vegetation transpiration and soil evaporation, further exhausting soil water resources, and eventually causing water yield reduction. However, soil and water conservation programs (SWCPs) in the humid KP reduced sediment yield substantially, and the runoff remained stable. Significant runoff reduction in the midstream of the Yellow River aggravated water scarcity and threatened the downstream water demand. Meanwhile, sediment load decline in the LP and the KP impacted sediment deposition in the downstream and estuary formation. From the perspective of integrated catchment governance, human interventions including ERP and SWCP should be more sustainable and consider not only the target process at the local scale (intracoupling effect), but also unprecedented non-target process at the regional scale (telecoupling effect). In addition, it should allow for the supply-demand balance of competing soil and water resources to achieve the coordinated development of resources, environment, and production.

Rice straw cover decreases soil erosion and sediment-bound C, N, and P losses but increases dissolved organic C export from upland maize fields as evidenced by δ13C

Soil surface with crop residue is effective in reducing soil erosion and carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) losses from sloping fields. However, there is a high possibility that surface cover increases export of dissolved organic C (DOC) though relevant field studies under natural rainfall are lacking. In this study, the effects of surface cover with rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw on soil and CNP losses in both dissolved and sediment-bound forms from maize (Zea mays L.) fields were investigated under two fertilization levels (standard and double) × two types of runoff experiments (natural rainfall and artificial irrigation). Changes in soil properties including moisture, temperature, nutrients, and C concentration as well as maize yield were also examined. Surface cover decreased soil and total CNP losses by up to 82% across the experimental plots with some exceptions. However, surface cover increased DOC export in both natural (by 68-82% in total across all events) and artificial (by 3-4 fold) runoff, suggesting that crop residue cover may act as a DOC pollution source of water bodies. The contribution of rice straw to DOC, which was calculated using the δ¹³C of DOC from covered plots (-24.1 to -28.0‰) and control plots (-19.6 to -25.1‰), was 52.5-95.8%. The concentrations of K₂SO₄-extractable and microbial biomass C of the soils did not differ between covered and control plots, suggesting that DOC produced from rice straw was not incorporated into the soils, but rather, was washed out with surface runoff in this study. Surface cover increased maize growth and yield, particularly in double fertilization plots, through improved soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient conditions. To take full advantage of surface cover with crop residue, a further study on reducing DOC loss from crop residue needs to be conducted.

Influence of weather types on the hydrosedimentary response in three small catchments on the Island of Mallorca, Spain

The influence of the sea and topography are vital factors in the atmospheric processes affecting any island, as they introduce peculiarities in the hydrosedimentary response of fluvial systems. In view of that, the relationship between the surface atmospheric conditions (weather types, WTs), rainfall, runoff and erosion dynamics in three small catchments located in Mallorca were analysed. The catchments are representative in terms of geomorphology and land use but also due to their location within the major rainfall areas previously identified in the island by (Sumner et al., 1993). Data of rainfall, runoff and sediment variables, coupled with calculated WTs were used for the 2013-2017 period. WTs frequency and distribution during this period were compared to the last climatic period reference (1981-2010) to test the climate validity of the study period. The results illustrated how hydrosedimentary response was mostly caused by eco-geographical patterns but also by differences in the response of each catchment to WTs, related to the intrinsic geographical position in the island and different exposures to humid winds. Anticyclonic WT was the most frequent, despite it being only involved in one flood event at the eastern catchment. Conversely, eastern and northeastern WTs generated more than 85% of the total runoff and sediment, representing only 39% of flood events. The understanding of the specific role of WTs on the island's hydrology was improved, considering that freshwater resources are scarce and eco-sociologically crucial.

Setting Up of an Experimental Site for the Continuous Monitoring of Water Discharge, Suspended Sediment Transport and Groundwater Levels in a Mediterranean Basin. Results of One Year of Activity

The study of suspended sediment transport requires continuous measurement of water discharge to better understand the sediment dynamics. Furthermore, a groundwater monitoring network can support the stream discharge measures, as it reveals how the interactions between surface water and groundwater may affect runoff and consequently sediment transport during flood events. An experimental site for the continuous monitoring of water discharge, suspended sediment transport and groundwater levels was set up in the Carapellotto basin (27.17 km2), which is located in Apulia, Southern Italy. Seven flood events that occurred in the operation timespan were covered with a full record of both water discharge and sediment concentration. Some monitoring problems, largely due to the clogging of the float by mud, suggested to improve the experimental set up. The results show high values of suspended sediments concentration which indicate the sub-basin’s key role in the sediment delivery to the whole river system, while counter-clockwise hysteresis loops are the most frequent due to the basin characteristics. The effects of the interaction between surface water and groundwater are related not only to the flood magnitude but also to the hydrogeological features in the hyporheic zone.

Assessing Resilience to Energy Poverty in Europe through a Multi-Criteria Analysis Framework

This study introduces a framework for assessing the resilience of different European countries against the problem of energy poverty. The proposed framework is established upon two major implementation pillars: capturing stakeholder knowledge and employing a multi-criteria analysis framework in order to provide valuable insights and objective results. The implicated evaluation criteria have been identified by the group of stakeholders and incorporate several socio-economic aspects of the problem beyond the energy dimension. The proposed methodology is largely dependent on the engaged stakeholders’ assessments, thus introducing nuggets of subjectivity into the whole analysis. However, it significantly differs from other energy poverty-based approaches, its novelty lying in that it directly attempts to evaluate a country according to its potential to deal with the problem as a whole, rather than deconstructing it in components and partial indicators. The proposed framework is demonstrated in countries in both Southern/Eastern and Northern/Western Europe (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands, Romania, Spain), exploiting diversities and particularities associated with their context.

Geospatial Assessment of Soil Erosion Intensity and Sediment Yield Using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Model

Land degradation caused by soil erosion is considered among the most severe problems of the 21stcentury. It poses serious threats to soil fertility, food availability, human health, and the world ecosystem. The purpose of the study is to make a quantitative mapping of soil loss in the Chitral district, Pakistan. For the estimation of soil loss in the study area, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model was used in combination with Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS). Topographical features of the study area show that the area is more vulnerable to soil loss, having the highest average annual soil loss of 78 ton/ha/year. Maps generated in the study show that the area has the highest sediment yield of 258 tons/ha/year and higher average annual soil loss of 450 tons/ha/year. The very high severity class represents 8%, 16% under high, 21% under moderate, 12% under low, and 13% under very low soil loss in the Chitral district. The above study is helpful to researchers and planners for better planning to control the loss of soil in the high severity zones. Plantation of trees and structures should be built like check dams, which effectively control the soil erosion process.

Do Land Use Changes Balance out Sediment Yields under Climate Change Predictions on the Sub-Basin Scale? The Carpathian Basin as an Example

The issue of whether land use changes will balance out sediment yields induced by climate predictions was assessed for a Carpathian basin (Raba River, Poland). This discussion was based on the Macromodel DNS (Discharge–Nutrient–Sea)/SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) results for the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios and LU predictions. To track sediment yield responses on the sub-basin level the studied area was divided into 36 units. The response of individual sub-basins to climate scenarios created a mosaic of negative and positive sediment yield changes in comparison to the baseline scenario. Then, overlapped forest and agricultural areas change indicated those sub-basins where sediment yields could be balanced out or not. The model revealed that sediment yields could be altered even by 49% in the selected upper sub-basins during the spring-summer months, while for the lower sub-basins the predicted changes will be less effective (3% on average). Moreover, the winter period, which needs to be re-defined due to an exceptional occurrence of frost and snow cover protecting soils against erosion, will significantly alter the soil particle transfer among the seasons. Finally, it has been shown that modeling of sediment transport, based on averaged meteorological values and LU changes, can lead to significant errors.