Comprehensive assessment of chemical residues in surface and wastewater using passive sampling, chemical, biological, and fish behavioral assays

Reviewing the use of zebrafish for the detection of neurotoxicity induced by chemical mixtures through the analysis of behaviour

The knowledge and assessment of mixtures of chemical pollutants in the aquatic environment is a complex issue that is often challenging to address. In this review, we focused on the use of zebrafish (Danio rerio), a vertebrate widely used in biomedical research, as a model for detecting the effects of chemical mixtures with a focus on behaviour. Our aim was to summarize the current status of the ecotoxicological research in this sector. Specifically, we limited our research to the period between January 2012 and September 2023, including only those works aimed at detecting neurotoxicity through behavioural endpoints, utilizing zebrafish at one or more developmental stages, from egg to adult. Additionally, we gathered the findings for every group of chemicals involved and summarized data from all the works we included. At the end of the screening process 101 papers were considered eligible for inclusion. Results show a growing interest in zebrafish at all life stages for this kind of research in the last decade. Also, a wide variety of different assays, involving different senses, was used in the works we surveyed, with exposures ranging from acute to chronic. In conclusion, the results of this study show the versatility of zebrafish as a model for the detection of mixture toxicity although, for what concerns behavioural analysis, the lack of standardisation of methods and endpoints might still be limiting.

Antidepressants - The new endocrine disruptors? The case of crustaceans

Antidepressants are high-volume pharmaceuticals that accumulate to concentrations in the μg·L-1 range in surface waters. The release of peptide hormones via neurosecretory cells appears as a natural target for antidepressants. Here I review research that suggests that antidepressants indeed disrupt endocrine signalling in crustaceans, by acting on the synthesis and release of neurohormones, such as crustacean hyperglycaemic hormone, moult inhibiting hormone and pigment dispersing hormone in decapods, as well as methyl farnesoate in Daphnids. Hence, antidepressants can affect hormonal regulation of physiological functions: increase in energy metabolism and activity, lowered ecdysteroid levels, potentially disrupting moult and somatic growth, reducing colour change capacity and compromising camouflage, as well as induction of male sex determination. Several studies further suggest effects of antidepressants on crustacean reproduction, but the hormonal regulation of these effects remains elusive. All things considered, a body of evidence strongly suggests that antidepressants are endocrine disrupting compounds in crustaceans.

The Complex Interplay Between Antibiotic Resistance and Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Environment

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are important environmental contaminants. Nonetheless, what drives the evolution, spread, and transmission of antibiotic resistance dissemination is still poorly understood. The abundance of ARB and ARGs is often elevated in human-impacted areas, especially in environments receiving fecal wastes, or in the presence of complex mixtures of chemical contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Self-replication, mutation, horizontal gene transfer, and adaptation to different environmental conditions contribute to the persistence and proliferation of ARB in habitats under strong anthropogenic influence. Our review discusses the interplay between chemical contaminants and ARB and their respective genes, specifically in reference to co-occurrence, potential biostimulation, and selective pressure effects, and gives an overview of mitigation by existing man-made and natural barriers. Evidence and strategies to improve the assessment of human health risks due to environmental antibiotic resistance are also discussed. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:637-652. © 2022 SETAC.

Reproducibility in nontarget screening (NTS) of environmental emerging contaminants: Assessing different HLB SPE cartridges and instruments

Non-targeted screening (NTS) methods are integral in environmental research for detecting emerging contaminants. However, their efficacy can be influenced by variations in hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) instruments across different laboratories. In this study, we scrutinized the influence of five HLB SPE cartridges (Nano, Weiqi, CNW, Waters, and J&K) and four LC-HRMS platforms (Agilent, Waters, Thermo, and AB SCIEX) on the identification of emerging environmental contaminants. Our results demonstrate that 87.6 % of the target compounds and over 59.6 % of the non-target features were consistently detected across all tested HLB cartridges, with an overall 71.2 % universally identified across the four LC-HRMS systems. Discrepancies in detection rates were primarily attributable to variations in retention time stability, mass stability of precursors and fragments, system cleanliness affecting fold change and p-values, and fragment response. These findings confirm the necessity of refining parameter criteria for NTS. Moreover, our study confirms the efficacy of the PyHRMS tool in analyzing and processing data from multiple instrumental platforms, reinforcing its utility for multi-platform NTS. Overall, our findings underscore the reliability and robustness of NTS methods in identifying potential water contaminants, while also highlighting factors that may influence these outcomes.

De facto Water Reuse: Investigating the Fate and Transport of Chemicals of Emerging Concern from Wastewater Discharge through Drinking Water Treatment Using Non-targeted Analysis and Suspect Screening

Wastewater is a source for many contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), and surface waters receiving wastewater discharge often serve as source water for downstream drinking water treatment plants. Nontargeted analysis and suspect screening methods were used to characterize chemicals in residence-time-weighted grab samples and companion polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) collected on three separate hydrologic sampling events along a surface water flow path representative of de facto water reuse. The goal of this work was to examine the fate of CECs along the study flow path as water is transported from wastewater effluent through drinking water treatment. Grab and POCIS samples provided a comparison between residence-time-weighted single-point and integrative sample results. This unique and rigorous study design, coupled with advanced analytical chemistry tools, provided important insights into chemicals found in drinking water and their potential sources, which can be used to help prioritize chemicals for further study. K-means clustering analysis was used to identify patterns in chemical occurrences across both sampling sites and sampling events. Chemical features that occurred frequently or survived drinking water treatment were prioritized for identification, resulting in the probable identification of over 100 CECs in the watershed and 28 CECs in treated drinking water.

Evaluating membrane bioreactor treatment for the elimination of emerging contaminants using different analytical methods

Since wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were not originally designed to eliminate contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), alternative strategies like membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology are gaining importance in achieving effective CEC removal and minimising their environmental impact. In this study, composite wastewater samples were collected from the biggest WWTP in the Basque Country (Galindo, Biscay) and the performance of two secondary treatments (i.e. conventional activated sludge treatment, CAS, and MBR) was assessed. The combination of a suspect screening approach using liquid chromatography tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and multitarget analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) allowed the detection of approximately 200 compounds in the WWTP effluents. The estimated removal efficiencies (REs) revealed that only 16 micropollutants exhibited enhanced removal by MBR treatment (RE > 70% or 40 - 60%). The environmental risk posed by the non-eliminated compounds after both treatments remained similar, being anthracene, clarithromycin, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dilantin the most concerning pollutants (RQ > 1). The Microtox® bioassay confirmed the MBR's efficiency in removing baseline toxicity, while suggesting a similar performance of CAS treatment. These minimal differences between treatments call into question the worthiness of MBR treatment and emphasise the need to seek more efficient alternative treatment methods.

Wastewater toxicity removal: Integrated chemical and effect-based monitoring of full-scale conventional activated sludge and membrane bioreactor plants

The literature is currently lacking effect-based monitoring studies targeted at evaluating the performance of full-scale membrane bioreactor plants. In this research, a monitoring campaign was performed at a full-scale wastewater treatment facility with two parallel lines (traditional activated sludge and membrane bioreactor). Beside the standard parameters (COD, nitrogen, phosphorus, and metals), 6 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, 29 insecticides, 2 herbicides, and 3 endocrine disrupting compounds were measured. A multi-tiered battery of bioassays complemented the investigation, targeting different toxic modes of action and employing various biological systems (uni/multicellular, prokaryotes/eukaryotes, trophic level occupation). A traffic light scoring approach was proposed to quickly visualize the impact of treatment on overall toxicity that occurred after the exposure to raw and concentrated wastewater. Analysis of the effluents of the CAS and MBR lines show very good performance of the two systems for removal of organic micropollutants and metals. The most noticeable differences between CAS and MBR occurred in the concentration of suspended solids; chemical analyses did not show major differences. On the other hand, bioassays demonstrated better performance for the MBR. Both treatment lines complied with the Italian law's "ecotoxicity standard for effluent discharge in surface water". Yet, residual biological activity was still detected, demonstrating the adequacy and sensitivity of the toxicological tools, which, by their inherent nature, allow the overall effects of complex mixtures to be taken into account.

Membrane technology for pesticide removal from aquatic environment: Status quo and way forward

The noxious side effects of pesticides on human health and environment have prompted the search of effective and reliable treatment techniques for pesticide removal. The removal of pesticides can be accomplished through physical, chemical and biologicals. Physical approaches such as filtration and adsorption are prevailing pesticide removal strategies on account of their effectiveness and ease of operation. Membrane-based filtration technology has been recognized as a promising water and wastewater treatment approach that can be used for a wide range of organic micropollutants including pesticides. Nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO) and forward osmosis (FO) have been increasingly explored for pesticide removal from aquatic environment owing to their versatility and high treatment efficiencies. This review looks into the remedial strategies of pesticides from aqueous environment using membrane-based processes. The potentials and applications of three prevailing membrane processes, namely NF, RO and FO for the treatment of pesticide-containing wastewater are discussed in terms of the development of advanced membranes, separation mechanisms and system design. The challenges in regards to the practical implementation of membrane-based processes for pesticide remediation are identified. The corresponding research directions and way forward are highlighted. An in depth understanding of the pesticide nature, water chemistry and the pesticide-membrane interactions is the key to achieving high pesticide removal efficiency. The integration of membrane technology and conventional removal technologies represents a new dimension and the future direction for the treatment of wastewater containing recalcitrant pesticides.