Synthesis and Temperature-Responsive Properties of Novel Semi-interpenetrating Polymer Networks Consisting of a Poly(acrylamide) Polymer Network and Linear Poly(acrylic acid) Chains

Reducing hole transporter use and increasing perovskite solar cell stability with dual-role polystyrene microgel particles

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are a disruptive technology that continues to attract considerable attention due to their remarkable and sustained power conversion efficiency increase. Improving PSC stability and reducing expensive hole transport material (HTM) usage are two aspects that are gaining increased attention. In a new approach, we investigate the ability of insulating polystyrene microgel particles (MGs) to increase PSC stability and replace the majority of the HTM phase. MGs are sub-micrometre crosslinked polymer particles that swell in a good solvent. The MGs were prepared using a scalable emulsion polymerisation method. Mixed HTM/MG dispersions were subsequently spin-coated onto PSCs and formed composite HTM-MG layers. The HTMs employed were poly(triaryl amine) (PTAA), poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and Spiro-MeOTAD (Spiro). The MGs formed mechanically robust composite HTMs with PTAA and P3HT. In contrast, Spiro-MG composites contained micro-cracks due the inability of the relatively small Spiro molecules to interdigitate. The efficiencies for the PSCs containing PTAA-MG and P3HT-MG decreased by only ∼20% compared to control PSCs despite PTAA and P3HT being the minority phases. They occupied only ∼35 vol% of the composite HTMs. An unexpected finding from the study was that the MGs dispersed well within the PTAA matrix. This morphology aided strong quenching of the CH₃NH₃PbI_3-xCl_x fluorescence. In addition, the open circuit voltages for the PSCs prepared using P3HT-MG increased by ∼170 mV compared to control PSCs. To demonstrate their versatility the MGs were also used to encapsulate P3HT-based PSCs. Solar cell stability data for the latter as well as those for PSCs containing composite HTM-MG were both far superior compared to data measured for a control PSC. Since MGs can reduce conjugated polymer use and increase stability they have good potential as dual-role PSC additives.

Weak Hydrogen Bonding Enables Hard, Strong, Tough, and Elastic Hydrogels

A new type of "rigid and tough" hydrogel with excellent elasticity is designed by dense clustering of hydrogen bonds within a loose chemical network. The resultant hydrogel exhibits a good combination of high modulus (28 MPa), toughness (9300 J m(-3) ), extensibility (800%), and tensile stress (2 MPa). Furthermore, the gel displays good fatigue-resistance and complete and extremely fast recovery of shape and mechanical properties (3 min at 37°C).

Dynamic swelling behavior of interpenetrating polymer networks in response to temperature and pH

Temperature responsive hydrogels based on ionic polymers exhibit swelling transitions in aqueous solutions as a function of shifting pH and ionic strength, in addition to temperature. Applying these hydrogels to useful applications, particularly for biomedical purposes such as drug delivery and regenerative medicine, is critically dependent on understanding the hydrogel solution responses as a function of all three parameters together. In this work, interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogels of polyacrylamide and poly(acrylic acid) were formulated over a broad range of synthesis variables using a fractional factorial design, and were examined for equilibrium temperature responsive swelling in a variety of solution conditions. Due to the acidic nature of these IPN hydrogels, usable upper critical solution temperature (UCST) responses for this system occur in mildly acidic environments. Responses were characterized in terms of maximum equilibrium swelling and temperature-triggered swelling using turbidity and gravimetric measurements. Additionally, synthesis parameters critical to achieving optimal overall swelling, temperature-triggered swelling, and sigmoidal temperature transitions for this IPN system were analyzed based on the fractional factorial design used to formulate these hydrogels.

Recent Research Progress on Polymer Grafted Carbon Black and Its Novel Applications

Polymer grafting of carbon black (CB) has been intensely researched as polymer modification is one of the effective means for improving the solubility and compatibility of carbon black. Recent advances in the polymer grafting methods allow the introduction of polymers with well controlled composition, structure and molecular weight onto the surface of CB. In addition, modification by functional polymers provides a powerful impetus to extend the applications of polymer-CB composites such as sensitive materials. This review focuses on the development of these grafting polymerization methods and some novel applications of polymer grafted CB.

Stimuli-responsive coacervate induced in binary functionalized poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) aqueous system and novel method for preparing semi-ipn microgel using the coacervate

We describe a novel method for preparing a stimuli-responsive semi-interpenetrating polymer network (semi-IPN) hydrogel microsphere using a thermoresponsive-type coacervation. The coacervate droplets were formed in the two-component nonionic poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-2-hydroxyisopropylacrylamide) (poly(NIPAAm-co-HIPAAm)) and ionic poly(NIPAAm-co-2-carboxyisopropylacrylamide) (poly(NIPAAm-co-CIPAAm)) aqueous system by heating the solution above the lower critical solution temperature. The resulting coacervate droplets included both kinds of polymer chains. Divinyl sulfone, which cross-links the hydroxyl groups of the poly(NIPAAm-co-HIPAAm), was added to the coacervate droplets. In this way, the stimuli-responsive semi-IPN hydrogel microsphere consisting of the poly(NIPAAm-co-HIPAAm) gel matrix and the linear poly(NIPAAm-co-CIPAAm) chains could be prepared, and their sizes were relatively homogeneous. That is, by utilizing the thermoresponsive coacervate droplets induced in the binary system, we could successfully prepare the fine stimuli-responsive semi-IPN hydrogel microsphere and it was prepared in a simple and easy method without any additives.

Azobenzene-based light-responsive hydrogel system

A deoxycholic acid-modified beta-cyclodextrin derivative (2) and an azobenzene-branched poly(acrylic acid) copolymer (3) were prepared, and the association and dissociation of 2 with the trans/cis-azobenzene units in 3 were characterized by UV/vis spectroscopy, induced circular dichroism, and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The experimental results indicate that the trans-azobenzene units are bound strongly within the cavities of 2 whereas the cis-azobenzene is not bound at all. A supramolecular inclusion complex (1), formed by 2 and 3, is accompanied by the formation of a hydrogel. The light-responsive gel-to-sol and sol-to-gel phase transitions of the hydrogel, induced by trans-cis photoisomerization of the azobenzene units, were investigated. In the hydrogel system, the trans-azobenzene units in 3 are included inside the hydrophobic cavity of 2. Upon photoirradiation with UV light of 355 nm, the hydrogel is converted efficiently to the sol phase because the trans-azobenzene units are converted photochemically to their cis configurations, whereupon the resulting cis-azobenzene units dissociate from 2. The hydrogel can be recovered from the sol phase by photoirradiation with visible light of 450 nm. The swelling ratio for fresh hydrogel samples, which was found to be 8.7 +/- 0.7, was measured for a number of gel-to-sol and sol-to-gel phase-transition cycles.

Enzyme activity control by responsive redoxpolymers

A new thermoresponsive poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAM)-ferrocene polymer was synthesized and characterized. PNIPAMFoxy bears additional oxirane groups which were used for attachment by a self-assembly process on a cysteamine-modified gold electrode to create a thin hydrophilic film. The new redox polymer enabled electrical communication between the cofactor pyrrolinoquinoline quinone (PQQ) of soluble glucose dehydrogenase (sGDH) and the electrode for sensitive detection of this enzyme as a prospective protein label. The temperature influence on the redox polymer/enzyme complex was investigated. An inverse temperature response behavior of surface bound PNIPAMFoxy compared to the soluble polymer was found and is discussed in detail. The highest efficiency of mediated electron transfer for the immobilized PNIPAMFoxy with sGDH was observed at 24 degrees C, which was twice as high as that of its soluble counterpart. A steady-state electrooxidation current densitiy of 4.5 microA.cm-2 was observed in the presence of 10 nM sGDH and 5 mM glucose. A detection limit of 0.5 nM of soluble PQQ-sGDH was obtained.

Composite Particles of Polyethylene @ Silica

Polyethylene (PE) and silica are perhaps the simplest and most common organic and inorganic polymers, respectively. We describe, for the first time, a physically interpenetrating nanocomposite between these two elementary polymers. While polymer-silica composites are well known, the nanometric physical blending of PE and silica has remained a challenge. A method for the preparation of such materials, which is based on the entrapment of dissolved PE in a polymerizing tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) system, has been developed. Specifically, the preparation of submicron particles of low-density PE@silica and high-density PE@silica is detailed, which is based on carrying out a silica sol-gel polycondensation process within emulsion droplets of TEOS dissolved PE, at elevated temperatures. The key to the successful preparation of this new composite has been the identification of a surfactant, PE-b-PEG, that is capable of stabilizing the emulsion and promoting the dissolution of the PE. A mechanism for the formation of the particles as well as their inner structure are proposed, based on a large battery of analyses, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopies (SEM), surface area and porosity analyses, various thermal analyses including thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA/DTA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements and solid-state NMR spectroscopy.