Recent progress in targeted delivery vectors based on biomimetic nanoparticles

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The recent emergence of nanomedicine has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape and necessitated the creation of more sophisticated drug delivery systems. Polymeric nanoparticles sit at the forefront of numerous promising drug delivery designs, due to their unmatched control over physiochemical properties such as size, shape, architecture, charge, and surface functionality. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles have the ability to navigate various biological barriers to precisely target specific sites within the body, encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic cargo and efficiently release this cargo in response to internal and external stimuli. However, despite these remarkable advantages, the presence of polymeric nanoparticles in wider clinical application is minimal. This review will provide a comprehensive understanding of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. The biological barriers affecting drug delivery will be outlined first, followed by a comprehensive description of the various nanoparticle designs and preparation methods, beginning with the polymers on which they are based. The review will meticulously explore the current performance of polymeric nanoparticles against a myriad of diseases including cancer, viral and bacterial infections, before finally evaluating the advantages and crucial challenges that will determine their wider clinical potential in the decades to come.

Prospectives and challenges of nano-tailored biomaterials-assisted biological molecules delivery for tissue engineering purposes

Nano carriers have gained more attention for their possible medical and technological applications. Tailored nanomaterials can transport medications efficiently to targeted areas and allow for sustained medication discharge, reducing undesirable toxicities while boosting curative effectiveness. Nonetheless, transitioning nanomedicines from experimental to therapeutic applications has proven difficult, so different pharmaceutical incorporation approaches in nano scaffolds are discussed. Then numerous types of nanobiomaterials implemented as carriers and their manufacturing techniques are explored. This article is also supported by various applications of nanobiomaterials in the biomedical field.

Targeted delivery of MerTK protein via cell membrane engineered nanoparticle enhances efferocytosis and attenuates atherosclerosis in diabetic ApoE-/- Mice

BACKGROUND

Clearance of apoptotic cells by efferocytosis is crucial for prevention of atherosclerosis progress, and impaired efferocytosis contributes to the aggravated atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that diabetic ApoE-/- mice showed aggravated atherosclerosis as hyperglycemia damaged the efferocytosis capacity at least partially due to decreased expression of Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) on macrophages. To locally restore MerTK in the macrophages in the plaque, hybrid membrane nanovesicles (HMNVs) were thus developed. Briefly, cell membrane from MerTK overexpressing RAW264.7 cell and transferrin receptor (TfR) overexpressing HEK293T cell were mixed with DOPE polymers to produce nanovesicles designated as HMNVs. HMNVs could fuse with the recipient cell membrane and thus increased MerTK in diabetic macrophages, which in turn restored the efferocytosis capacity. Upon intravenous administration into diabetic ApoE-/- mice, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SMN) decorated HMNVs accumulated at the aorta site significantly under magnetic navigation, where the recipient macrophages cleared the apoptotic cells efficiently and thus decreased the inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

 Our study indicates that MerTK decrease in macrophages contributes to the aggravated atherosclerosis in diabetic ApoE-/- mice and regional restoration of MerTK in macrophages of the plaque via HMNVs could be a promising therapeutic approach.

Macrophage membrane-camouflaged nanoclusters of ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles for precision glioma theranostics

Developing effective nanomedicines to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) for efficient glioma theranostics is still considered to be a challenging task. Here, we describe the development of macrophage membrane (MM)-coated nanoclusters (NCs) of ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles (USIO NPs) with dual pH- and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsivenesses for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and chemotherapy/chemodynamic therapy (CDT) of orthotopic glioma. Surface citrate-stabilized USIO NPs were solvothermally synthesized, sequentially modified with ethylenediamine and phenylboronic acid, and cross-linked with gossypol to form gossypol-USIO NCs (G-USIO NCs), which were further coated with MMs. The prepared MM-coated G-USIO NCs (G-USIO@MM NCs) with a mean size of 99.9 nm display tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive gossypol and Fe release to promote intracellular ROS production and glutathione consumption. With the MM-mediated BBB crossing and glioma targeting, the G-USIO@MM NCs can specifically inhibit orthotopic glioma in vivo through the gossypol-mediated chemotherapy and Fe-mediated CDT. Meanwhile, USIO NPs can be dissociated from the NCs under the TME, thus allowing for effective T1-weighted glioma MR imaging. The developed G-USIO@MM NCs with simple components and drug as a crosslinker are promising for glioma theranostics, and may be extended to tackle other cancer types.

Revolutionizing Neurocare: Biomimetic Nanodelivery Via Cell Membranes

Brain disorders represent a significant challenge in medical science due to the formidable blood-brain barrier (BBB), which severely limits the penetration of conventional therapeutics, hindering effective treatment strategies. This review delves into the innovative realm of biomimetic nanodelivery systems, including stem cell-derived nanoghosts, tumor cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, and erythrocyte membrane-based carriers, highlighting their potential to circumvent the BBB's restrictions. By mimicking native cell properties, these nanocarriers emerge as a promising solution for enhancing drug delivery to the brain, offering a strategic advantage in overcoming the barrier's selective permeability. The unique benefits of leveraging cell membranes from various sources is evaluated and advanced technologies for fabricating cell membrane-encapsulated nanoparticles capable of masquerading as endogenous cells are examined. This enables the targeted delivery of a broad spectrum of therapeutic agents, ranging from small molecule drugs to proteins, thereby providing an innovative approach to neurocare. Further, the review contrasts the capabilities and limitations of these biomimetic nanocarriers with traditional delivery methods, underlining their potential to enable targeted, sustained, and minimally invasive treatment modalities. This review is concluded with a perspective on the clinical translation of these biomimetic systems, underscoring their transformative impact on the therapeutic landscape for intractable brain diseases.

Nanomedicine Targeting Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Enhances Anti-Tumor Immunity

Cancer immunotherapy, a field within immunology that aims to enhance the host's anti-cancer immune response, frequently encounters challenges associated with suboptimal response rates. The presence of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), crucial constituents of the tumor microenvironment (TME), exacerbates this issue by fostering immunosuppression and impeding T cell differentiation and maturation. Consequently, targeting MDSCs has emerged as crucial for immunotherapy aimed at enhancing anti-tumor responses. The development of nanomedicines specifically designed to target MDSCs aims to improve the effectiveness of immunotherapy by transforming immunosuppressive tumors into ones more responsive to immune intervention. This review provides a detailed overview of MDSCs in the TME and current strategies targeting these cells. Also the benefits of nanoparticle-assisted drug delivery systems, including design flexibility, efficient drug loading, and protection against enzymatic degradation, are highlighted. It summarizes advances in nanomedicine targeting MDSCs, covering enhanced treatment efficacy, safety, and modulation of the TME, laying the groundwork for more potent cancer immunotherapy.

Emerging non-antibody‒drug conjugates (non-ADCs) therapeutics of toxins for cancer treatment

The non-selective cytotoxicity of toxins limits the clinical relevance of the toxins. In recent years, toxins have been widely used as warheads for antibody‒drug conjugates (ADCs) due to their efficient killing activity against various cancer cells. Although ADCs confer certain targeting properties to the toxins, low drug loading capacity, possible immunogenicity, and other drawbacks also limit the potential application of ADCs. Recently, non-ADC delivery strategies for toxins have been extensively investigated. To further understand the application of toxins in anti-tumor, this paper provided an overview of prodrugs, nanodrug delivery systems, and biomimetic drug delivery systems. In addition, toxins and their combination strategies with other therapies were discussed. Finally, the prospect and challenge of toxins in cancer treatment were also summarized.

PGC1α-Inducing Senomorphic Nanotherapeutics Functionalized with NKG2D-Overexpressing Cell Membranes for Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Cellular senescence is a significant contributor to intervertebral disc aging and degeneration. However, the application of senotherapies, such as senomorphics targeting senescence markers and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), remains limited due to challenges in precise delivery. Given that the natural killer group 2D (NKG2D) ligands are increased on the surface of senescent nucleus pulposus (NP) cells, the NKG2D-overexpressing NP cell membranes (NNPm) are constructed, which is expected to achieve a dual targeting effect toward senescent NP cells based on homologous membrane fusion and the NKG2D-mediated immunosurveillance mechanism. Then, mesoporous silica nanoparticles carrying a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-ɣ coactivator 1α (PGC1α)inducer (SP) are coated with NNPm (SP@NNPm) and it is found that SP@NNPm selectively targets senescent NP cells, and the SP cores exhibit pH-responsive drug release. Moreover, SP@NNPm effectively induces PGC1α-mediated mitochondrial biogenesis and mitigates senescence-associated markers induced by oxidative stress and the SASP, thereby alleviating puncture-induced senescence and disc degeneration. This dual-targeting nanotherapeutic system represents a novel approach to delivery senomorphics for disc degeneration treatment.

A novel microglia-targeting strategy based on nanoparticle-mediated delivery of miR-26a-5p for long-lasting analgesia in chronic pain

Accumulating evidence supports the notion that microglia play versatile roles in different chronic pain conditions. However, therapeutic strategies of chronic pain by targeting microglia remain largely overlooked. This study seeks to develop a miRNA-loaded nano-delivery system by targeting microglia, which could provide a decent and long-lasting analgesia for chronic pain. Surface aminated mesoporous silica nanoparticles were adopted to load miR-26a-5p, a potent analgesic miRNA, by electrostatic adsorption, which can avoid miR-26a-5p is rapidly released and degraded. Then, targeting peptide MG1 was modified on the surface of aminated mesoporous silica particles for microglia targeting. In peripheral nerve injury induced neuropathic pain model, a satisfactory anti-allodynia effect with about 6 weeks pain-relief duration were achieved through targeting microglia strategy, which decreased microglia activation and inflammation by Wnt5a, a non-canonical Wnt pathway. In inflammatory pain and chemotherapy induced peripheral neuropathic pain, microglia targeting strategy also exhibited more efficient analgesia and longer pain-relief duration than others. Overall, we developed a microglia-targeting nano-delivery system, which facilitates precisely miR-26a-5p delivery to enhance analgesic effect and duration for several chronic pain conditions.

Targeted nonviral delivery of genome editors in vivo

Cell-type-specific in vivo delivery of genome editing molecules is the next breakthrough that will drive biological discovery and transform the field of cell and gene therapy. Here, we discuss recent advances in the delivery of CRISPR-Cas genome editors either as preassembled ribonucleoproteins or encoded in mRNA. Both strategies avoid pitfalls of viral vector-mediated delivery and offer advantages including transient editor lifetime and potentially streamlined manufacturing capability that are already proving valuable for clinical use. We review current applications and future opportunities of these emerging delivery approaches that could make genome editing more efficacious and accessible in the future.

A lncRNA Dleu2-encoded peptide relieves autoimmunity by facilitating Smad3-mediated Treg induction

Micropeptides encoded by short open reading frames (sORFs) within long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are beginning to be discovered and characterized as regulators of biological and pathological processes. Here, we find that lncRNA Dleu2 encodes a 17-amino-acid micropeptide, which we name Dleu2-17aa, that is abundantly expressed in T cells. Dleu2-17aa promotes inducible regulatory T (iTreg) cell generation by interacting with SMAD Family Member 3 (Smad3) and enhancing its binding to the Foxp3 conserved non-coding DNA sequence 1 (CNS1) region. Importantly, the genetic deletion of Dleu2-17aa in mice by start codon mutation impairs iTreg generation and worsens experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Conversely, the exogenous supplementation of Dleu2-17aa relieves EAE. Our findings demonstrate an indispensable role of Dleu2-17aa in maintaining immune homeostasis and suggest therapeutic applications for this peptide in treating autoimmune diseases.

Tolerogenic Nano-/Microparticle Vaccines for Immunotherapy

Autoimmune diseases, allergies, transplant rejections, generation of antidrug antibodies, and chronic inflammatory diseases have impacted a large group of people across the globe. Conventional treatments and therapies often use systemic or broad immunosuppression with serious efficacy and safety issues. Tolerogenic vaccines represent a concept that has been extended from their traditional immune-modulating function to induction of antigen-specific tolerance through the generation of regulatory T cells. Without impairing immune homeostasis, tolerogenic vaccines dampen inflammation and induce tolerogenic regulation. However, achieving the desired potency of tolerogenic vaccines as preventive and therapeutic modalities calls for precise manipulation of the immune microenvironment and control over the tolerogenic responses against the autoantigens, allergens, and/or alloantigens. Engineered nano-/microparticles possess desirable design features that can bolster targeted immune regulation and enhance the induction of antigen-specific tolerance. Thus, particle-based tolerogenic vaccines hold great promise in clinical translation for future treatment of aforementioned immune disorders. In this review, we highlight the main strategies to employ particles as exciting tolerogenic vaccines, with a focus on the particles' role in facilitating the induction of antigen-specific tolerance. We describe the particle design features that facilitate their usage and discuss the challenges and opportunities for designing next-generation particle-based tolerogenic vaccines with robust efficacy to promote antigen-specific tolerance for immunotherapy.

Dual-functional DNA nanogels for anticancer drug delivery

DNA hydrogels with unique sequence programmability on nucleic acid framework manifest remarkable attributes, such as high payload capacities, biocompatibility and biosafety. The availability of DNA nanogels with multimodal functionalities remains limited due to the absence of facile gelation methods applicable at the nanometer scale. Here, we developed a one-step assembly of DNA dendrimers into nanogels (DNG) with couple hundred nanometers size. DNG showed robust stability against physical forces and biological degradation for easy purification and sustainable drug release. Long-term stability either in powder or aqueous solution endows DNG easy for shipping, handling and storage. By encoding dual functionalities into separate branches on DNA dendrimers, DNG can accommodate chemodrugs and aptamers with distinctive loading moduli. DNG significantly enhanced the drug efficacy against cancerous cells while minimizing cytotoxicity towards somatic cells, as demonstrated in vitro and in xenografted mice models of breast cancer. Thus, due to their facile assembly and storage, bi-entity encoding, and inherent biocompatibility, DNG exhibits immense prospects as nanoscale vesicles for the synergistic delivery of multimodal theranostics in anticancer treatments. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: DNA nanogels were self-assembled via a facile protocol utilizing a DNA dendrimer structure. These nanogels displayed robust stability against physical forces, permitting long term storage in concentrated solutions or as a powder. Furthermore, they exhibited resilience to biological degradation, facilitating sustained drug release. The bi-entity encoded dendritic branches conferred dual functionalities, enabling both chemodrug encapsulation and the presentation of aptamers as targeting motifs. In vivo investigations confirmed the nanogels provide high efficacy in tumor targeting and chemotherapy with enhanced drug efficacy and reduced side effects.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic technology for cancer phototherapy: Mechanisms, recent advances and perspectives

Despite significant advances in medical technology and antitumour treatments, the diagnosis and treatment of tumours have undergone remarkable transformations. Noninvasive phototherapy methods, such as photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), have gained significant interest in antitumour medicine. However, traditional photosensitisers or photothermal agents face challenges like immune system recognition, rapid clearance from the bloodstream, limited tumour accumulation, and phototoxicity concerns. Researchers combine photosensitisers or photothermal agents with natural cell membranes to overcome these obstacles to create a nano biomimetic therapeutic platform. When used to coat nanoparticles, red blood cells, platelets, cancer cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, and bacterial outer membranes could provide prolonged circulation, tumour targeting, immune stimulation, or antigenicity. This article covers the principles of cellular membrane biomimetic nanotechnology and phototherapy, along with recent advancements in applying nano biomimetic technology to PDT, PTT, PCT, and combined diagnosis and treatment. Furthermore, the challenges and issues of using nano biomimetic nanoparticles in phototherapy are discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Currently, there has been significant progress in the field of cell membrane biomimetic technology. Researchers are exploring its potential application in tumor diagnosis and treatment through phototherapy. Scholars have conducted extensive research on combining cell membrane technology and phototherapy in anticancer diagnosis and treatment. This review aims to highlight the mechanisms of phototherapy and the latest advancements in single phototherapy (PTT, PDT) and combination phototherapy (PCT, PRT, and PIT), as well as diagnostic approaches. The review provides an overview of various cell membrane technologies, including RBC membranes, platelet membranes, macrophage cell membranes, tumour cell membranes, bacterial membranes, hybrid membranes, and their potential for anticancer applications under phototherapy. Lastly, the review discusses the challenges and future directions in this field.

Advanced Drug Carriers: A Review of Selected Protein, Polysaccharide, and Lipid Drug Delivery Platforms

Studies on bionanocomposite drug carriers are a key area in the field of active substance delivery, introducing innovative approaches to improve drug therapy. Such drug carriers play a crucial role in enhancing the bioavailability of active substances, affecting therapy efficiency and precision. The targeted delivery of drugs to the targeted sites of action and minimization of toxicity to the body is becoming possible through the use of these advanced carriers. Recent research has focused on bionanocomposite structures based on biopolymers, including lipids, polysaccharides, and proteins. This review paper is focused on the description of lipid-containing nanocomposite carriers (including liposomes, lipid emulsions, lipid nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers), polysaccharide-containing nanocomposite carriers (including alginate and cellulose), and protein-containing nanocomposite carriers (e.g., gelatin and albumin). It was demonstrated in many investigations that such carriers show the ability to load therapeutic substances efficiently and precisely control drug release. They also demonstrated desirable biocompatibility, which is a promising sign for their potential application in drug therapy. The development of bionanocomposite drug carriers indicates a novel approach to improving drug delivery processes, which has the potential to contribute to significant advances in the field of pharmacology, improving therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects.

Targeted Therapy of Acute Liver Injury via Cryptotanshinone-Loaded Biomimetic Nanoparticles Derived from Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Driven by Homing

Acute liver injury (ALI) has the potential to compromise hepatic function rapidly, with severe cases posing a considerable threat to human health and wellbeing. Conventional treatments, such as the oral administration of antioxidants, can inadvertently lead to liver toxicity and other unwanted side effects. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) can target therapeutic agents directly to inflammatory sites owing to their homing effect, and they offer a promising avenue for the treatment of ALI. However, the efficacy and feasibility of these live cell products are hampered by challenges associated with delivery pathways and safety concerns. Therefore, in this work, MSC membranes were ingeniously harnessed as protective shells to encapsulate synthesized PLGA nanoparticle cores (PLGA/MSCs). This strategic approach enabled nanoparticles to simulate endogenous substances and yielded a core-shell nano-biomimetic structure. The biomimetic nanocarrier remarkably maintained the homing ability of MSCs to inflammatory sites. In this study, cryptotanshinone (CPT)-loaded PLGA/MSCs (CPT@PLGA/MSC) were prepared. These nanoparticles can be effectively internalized by LO2 cells. They reduced cellular oxidative stress and elevated inflammatory levels. In vivo results suggested that, after intravenous administration, CPT@PLGA/MSCs significantly reduced uptake by the reticuloendothelial system and immune recognition compared to PLGA nanoparticles without MSC membrane coatings, subsequently resulting in their targeted and enhanced accumulation in the liver. The effectiveness of CPT@PLGA/MSCs in alleviating carbon tetrachloride-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in a mouse model was unequivocally demonstrated through comprehensive histological examination and liver function tests. This study introduces a pioneering strategy with substantial potential for ALI treatment.

Cell membrane biomimetic nanoparticles in drug delivery

Despite the efficiency of nanoparticle (NP) therapy, in vivo investigations have shown that it does not perform as well as in vitro. In this case, NP confronts many defensive hurdles once they enter the body. The delivery of NP to sick tissue is inhibited by these immune-mediated clearance mechanisms. Hence, using a cell membrane to hide NP for active distribution offers up a new path for focused treatment. These NPs are better able to reach the disease's target location, leading to enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In this emerging class of drug delivery vehicles, the inherent relation between the NPs and the biological components obtained from the human body was utilized, which mimic the properties and activities of native cells. This new technology has shown the viability of using biomimicry to evade immune system-provided biological barriers, with an emphasis on restricting clearance from the body before reaching its intended target. Furthermore, by providing signaling cues and transplanted biological components that favorably change the intrinsic immune response at the disease site, the NPs would be capable interacting with immune cells regarding the biomimetic method. Thus, we aimed to provide a current landscape and future trends of biomimetic NPs in drug delivery.

Responsive nanosystems for targeted therapy of ulcerative colitis: Current practices and future perspectives

The pharmacological approach to treating gastrointestinal diseases is suffering from various challenges. Among such gastrointestinal diseases, ulcerative colitis manifests inflammation at the colon site specifically. Patients suffering from ulcerative colitis notably exhibit thin mucus layers that offer increased permeability for the attacking pathogens. In the majority of ulcerative colitis patients, the conventional treatment options fail in controlling the symptoms of the disease leading to distressing effects on the quality of life. Such a scenario is due to the failure of conventional therapies to target the loaded moiety into specific diseased sites in the colon. Targeted carriers are needed to address this issue and enhance the drug effects. Conventional nanocarriers are mostly readily cleared and have nonspecific targeting. To accumulate the desired concentration of the therapeutic candidates at the inflamed area of the colon, smart nanomaterials with responsive nature have been explored recently that include pH responsive, reactive oxygen species responsive (ROS), enzyme responsive and thermo - responsive smart nanocarrier systems. The formulation of such responsive smart nanocarriers from nanotechnology scaffolds has resulted in the selective release of therapeutic drugs, avoiding systemic absorption and limiting the undesired delivery of targeting drugs into healthy tissues. Recent advancements in the field of responsive nanocarrier systems have resulted in the fabrication of multi-responsive systems i.e. dual responsive nanocarriers and derivitization that has increased the biological tissues and smart nanocarrier's interaction. In addition, it has also led to efficient targeting and significant cellular uptake of the therapeutic moieties. Herein, we have highlighted the latest status of the responsive nanocarrier drug delivery system, its applications for on-demand delivery of drug candidates for ulcerative colitis, and the prospects are underpinned.

Macrophage-Biomimetic Nanoplatform-Based Therapy for Inflammation-Associated Diseases

Inflammation-associated diseases are very common clinically with a high incidence; however, there is still a lack of effective treatments. Cell-biomimetic nanoplatforms have led to many breakthroughs in the field of biomedicine, significantly improving the efficiency of drug delivery and its therapeutic implications especially for inflammation-associated diseases. Macrophages are an important component of immune cells and play a critical role in the occurrence and progression of inflammation-associated diseases while simultaneously maintaining homeostasis and modulating immune responses. Therefore, macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms not only inherit the functions of macrophages including the inflammation tropism effect for targeted delivery of drugs and the neutralization effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines and toxins via membrane surface receptors or proteins, but also maintain the functions of the inner nanoparticles. Macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are shown to have remarkable therapeutic efficacy and excellent application potential in inflammation-associated diseases. In this review, inflammation-associated diseases, the physiological functions of macrophages, and the classification and construction of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are first introduced. Next, the latest applications of different macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms for the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases are summarized. Finally, challenges and opportunities for future biomedical applications are discussed. It is hoped that the review will provide new ideas for the further development of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms.

Multifunctional mesoporous silica nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are recognized as a prime example of nanotechnology applied in the biomedical field, due to their easily tunable structure and composition, diverse surface functionalization properties, and excellent biocompatibility. Over the past two decades, researchers have developed a wide variety of MSNs-based nanoplatforms through careful design and controlled preparation techniques, demonstrating their adaptability to various biomedical application scenarios. With the continuous breakthroughs of MSNs in the fields of biosensing, disease diagnosis and treatment, tissue engineering, etc., MSNs are gradually moving from basic research to clinical trials. In this review, we provide a detailed summary of MSNs in the biomedical field, beginning with a comprehensive overview of their development history. We then discuss the types of MSNs-based nanostructured architectures, as well as the classification of MSNs-based nanocomposites according to the elements existed in various inorganic functional components. Subsequently, we summarize the primary purposes of surface-functionalized modifications of MSNs. In the following, we discuss the biomedical applications of MSNs, and highlight the MSNs-based targeted therapeutic modalities currently developed. Given the importance of clinical translation, we also summarize the progress of MSNs in clinical trials. Finally, we take a perspective on the future direction and remaining challenges of MSNs in the biomedical field.

Translational Challenges and Prospective Solutions in the Implementation of Biomimetic Delivery Systems

Biomimetic delivery systems (BDSs), inspired by the intricate designs of biological systems, have emerged as a groundbreaking paradigm in nanomedicine, offering unparalleled advantages in therapeutic delivery. These systems, encompassing platforms such as liposomes, protein-based nanoparticles, extracellular vesicles, and polysaccharides, are lauded for their targeted delivery, minimized side effects, and enhanced therapeutic outcomes. However, the translation of BDSs from research settings to clinical applications is fraught with challenges, including reproducibility concerns, physiological stability, and rigorous efficacy and safety evaluations. Furthermore, the innovative nature of BDSs demands the reevaluation and evolution of existing regulatory and ethical frameworks. This review provides an overview of BDSs and delves into the multifaceted translational challenges and present emerging solutions, underscored by real-world case studies. Emphasizing the potential of BDSs to redefine healthcare, we advocate for sustained interdisciplinary collaboration and research. As our understanding of biological systems deepens, the future of BDSs in clinical translation appears promising, with a focus on personalized medicine and refined patient-specific delivery systems.

Biomimetic nanomedicines for precise atherosclerosis theranostics

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of the life-threatening cardiovascular disease (CVD), creating an urgent need for efficient, biocompatible therapeutics for diagnosis and treatment. Biomimetic nanomedicines (bNMs) are moving closer to fulfilling this need, pushing back the frontier of nano-based drug delivery systems design. This review seeks to outline how these nanomedicines (NMs) might work to diagnose and treat atherosclerosis, to trace the trajectory of their development to date and in the coming years, and to provide a foundation for further discussion about atherosclerotic theranostics.

The innovative design of a delivery and real-time tracer system for anti-encephalitis drugs that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier

As a "wall" between blood flow and brain cells, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) makes it really difficult for drugs to cross this barrier and work. This is particularly the case for pharmaceuticals of acute encephalitis therapies, largely excluded from the brain following systemic administration. Herein we report an advanced drug delivery system that can cross the BBB and target acute inflammation based on the controlled release of macrophage-camouflaged glow nanoparticles via a Trojan horse strategy. Benefiting from afterglow imaging that eliminates background interference and RAW 264.7 cells (RAW) with special immune homing and long-term tracking capabilities, polydopamine (PDA)-modified afterglow nanoparticles (ANPs) as near-infrared photo-responsive drug carriers in a controlled delivery system camouflaged by macrophages can penetrate the BBB by crossing the intercellular space and trigger the anti-inflammatory drug by photothermal conversion in the brain parenchyma dexamethasone (Dex) release, exhibiting good acute inflammation recognition and healing ability. APD@RAW was monitored to cross the BBB and image deep brain inflamed areas in a model of acute brain inflammation. Meanwhile, the delivered Dex mitigated the brain damage caused by inflammatory cytokines secretion (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β). Overall, this drug delivery system holds excellent potential for BBB penetrating and acute encephalitis therapies.

CaMKII, 'jack of all trades' in inflammation during cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury

Myocardial infarction and revascularization cause cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury featuring cardiomyocyte death and inflammation. The Ca2+/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) family are serine/ threonine protein kinases that are involved in I/R injury. CaMKII exists in four different isoforms, α, β, γ, and δ. In the heart, CaMKII-δ is the predominant isoform，with multiple splicing variants, such as δB, δC and δ9. During I/R, elevated intracellular Ca2+ concentrations and reactive oxygen species activate CaMKII. In this review, we summarized the regulation and function of CaMKII in multiple cell types including cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and macrophages during I/R. We conclude that CaMKII mediates inflammation in the microenvironment of the myocardium, resulting in cell dysfunction, elevated inflammation, and cell death. However, different CaMKII-δ variants exhibit distinct or even opposite functions. Therefore, reagents/approaches that selectively target specific CaMKII isoforms and variants are needed for evaluating and counteracting the exact role of CaMKII in I/R injury and developing effective treatments against I/R injury.

Targeted siRNA Delivery by Bioinspired Cancer Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles with Enhanced Anti-Cancer Immunity

Introduction

Cell-membrane nanocarriers are usually constructed by modifying the nanoparticle surface with cell membrane extracts, which has a direct benefit in endowing targeting capacity to nanocarriers based on their original cell types. However, delivering nucleic acid cargos by cell membrane-based nanoparticles is difficult owing to the strong negative charge of the cell membrane fraction. In this study, we developed a cancer cell membrane-based drug delivery system, the cMDS, for efficient siRNA delivery. Meanwhile, the cancer-specific immune response stimulated by the gene vector itself could offer synergistic anti-cancer ability.

Methods

The cMDS was prepared by ultrasound, and its transfection efficiency and anti-cancer ability were examined using cultures of CT26 cells. MTT and red blood cell hemolysis tests were performed to assess the safety of cMDS, while its targeted gene delivery and strong immune stimulation were investigated in a subcutaneous tumor model. Moreover, the detailed anti-cancer immune stimulation mechanisms of cMDS are uncovered by protein chip analysis.

Results

The cMDS was spherical core-shell structure. It showed high transfection efficiency and anti-cancer ability in vitro. In animal experiments, intravenously administered cMDS/siStat3 complex efficiently suppress the growth of colon cancer. Moreover, the result of protein chip analysis suggested that cMDS affect the migration and chemotaxis of immune cells.

Conclusion

The cMDS shows obvious tumor tissue-specific accumulation properties and strong immune stimulation ability. It is an advanced targeted gene delivery system with potent immunotherapeutic properties.

Recent Advances in Anti-Atherosclerosis and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Nanomaterial-Derived Drug Formulations

Atherosclerosis, the leading cause of death worldwide, is responsible for ≈17.6 million deaths globally each year. Most therapeutic drugs for atherosclerosis have low delivery efficiencies and significant side effects, and this has hampered the development of effective treatment strategies. Diversified nanomaterials can improve drug properties and are considered to be key for the development of improved treatment strategies for atherosclerosis. The pathological mechanisms underlying atherosclerosis is summarized, rationally designed nanoparticle-mediated therapeutic strategies, and potential future therapeutic targets for nanodelivery. The content of this study reveals the potential and challenges of nanoparticle use for the treatment of atherosclerosis and highlights new effective design ideas.

Biomolecule-functionalized nanoformulations for prostate cancer theranostics

BACKGROUND

Even with the advancement in the areas of cancer nanotechnology, prostate cancer still poses a major threat to men's health. Nanomaterials and nanomaterial-derived theranostic systems have been explored for diagnosis, imaging, and therapy for different types of cancer still, for prostate cancer they have not delivered at full potential because of the limitations like in vivo biocompatibility, immune responses, precise targetability, and therapeutic outcome associated with the nanostructured system.

AIM OF REVIEW

Functionalizing nanomaterials with different biomolecules and bioactive agents provides advantages like specificity towards cancerous tumors, improved circulation time, and modulation of the immune response leading to early diagnosis and targeted delivery of cargo at the site of action.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

In this review, we have emphasized the classification and comparison of various nanomaterials based on biofunctionalization strategy and source of biomolecules such that it can be used for possible translation in clinical settings and future developments. This review highlighted the opportunities for embedding highly specific biological targeting moieties (antibody, aptamer, oligonucleotides, biopolymer, peptides, etc.) on nanoparticles which can improve the detection of prostate cancer-associated biomarkers at a very low limit of detection, direct visualization of prostate tumors and lastly for its therapy. Lastly, special emphasis was given to biomimetic nanomaterials which include functionalization with extracellular vesicles, exosomes and viral particles and their application for prostate cancer early detection and drug delivery. The present review paves a new pathway for next-generation biofunctionalized nanomaterials for prostate cancer theranostic application and their possibility in clinical translation.

Delivering drugs to tubular cells and organelles: the application of nanodrugs in acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common clinical syndrome with limited treatment options and high mortality rates. Proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs) play a key role in AKI progression. Subcellular dysfunctions, including mitochondrial, nuclear, endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomal dysfunctions, are extensively studied in PTECs. These studies have led to the development of potential therapeutic drugs. However, clinical development of those drugs faces challenges such as low solubility, short circulation time and severe systemic side effects. Nanotechnology provides a promising solution by improving drug properties through nanocrystallization and enabling targeted delivery to specific sites. This review summarizes advancements and limitations of nanoparticle-based drug-delivery systems in targeting PTECs and subcellular organelles, particularly mitochondria, for AKI treatment.

Biomembrane nanostructures: Multifunctional platform to enhance tumor chemoimmunotherapy via effective drug delivery

Chemotherapeutic drugs have been found to activate the immune response against tumors by inducing immunogenic cell death, in addition to their direct cytotoxic effects toward tumors, therefore broadening the application of chemotherapy in tumor immunotherapy. The combination of other therapeutic strategies, such as phototherapy or radiotherapy, could further strengthen the therapeutic effects of immunotherapy. Nanostructures can facilitate multimodal tumor therapy by integrating various active agents and combining multiple types of therapeutics in a single nanostructure. Biomembrane nanostructures (e.g., exosomes and cell membrane-derived nanostructures), characterized by superior biocompatibility, intrinsic targeting ability, intelligent responsiveness and immune-modulating properties, could realize superior chemoimmunotherapy and represent next-generation nanostructures for tumor immunotherapy. This review summarizes recent advances in biomembrane nanostructures in tumor chemoimmunotherapy and highlights different types of engineering approaches and therapeutic mechanisms. A series of engineering strategies for combining different biomembrane nanostructures, including liposomes, exosomes, cell membranes and bacterial membranes, are summarized. The combination strategy can greatly enhance the targeting, intelligence and functionality of biomembrane nanostructures for chemoimmunotherapy, thereby serving as a stronger tumor therapeutic method. The challenges associated with the clinical translation of biomembrane nanostructures for chemoimmunotherapy and their future perspectives are also discussed.

Cell membrane-based nanomaterials for theranostics of central nervous system diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases have been widely acknowledged as one of the major healthy concerns globally, which lead to serious impacts on human health. There will be about 135 million CNS diseases cases worldwide by mid-century, and CNS diseases will become the second leading cause of death after the cardiovascular disease by 2040. Most CNS diseases lack of effective diagnostic and therapeutic strategies with one of the reasons that the biological barrier extremely hampers the delivery of theranostic agents. In recent years, nanotechnology-based drug delivery is a quite promising way for CNS diseases due to excellent properties. Among them, cell membrane-based nanomaterials with natural bio-surface, high biocompatibility and biosafety, are of great significance in both the diagnosis and treatment of different CNS diseases. In this review, the state of art of the fabrication of cell membranes-based nanomaterials is introduced. The characteristics of different CNS diseases, and the application of cell membranes-based nanomaterials in the theranostics are summarized. In addition, the future prospects and limitations of cell membrane nanotechnology are anticipated. Through summarizing the state of art of the fabrication, giving examples of CNS diseases, and highlighting the applications in theranostics, the current review provides designing methods and ideas for subsequent cell membrane nanomaterials.

Nanomedicine in cancer therapy

Cancer remains a highly lethal disease in the world. Currently, either conventional cancer therapies or modern immunotherapies are non-tumor-targeted therapeutic approaches that cannot accurately distinguish malignant cells from healthy ones, giving rise to multiple undesired side effects. Recent advances in nanotechnology, accompanied by our growing understanding of cancer biology and nano-bio interactions, have led to the development of a series of nanocarriers, which aim to improve the therapeutic efficacy while reducing off-target toxicity of the encapsulated anticancer agents through tumor tissue-, cell-, or organelle-specific targeting. However, the vast majority of nanocarriers do not possess hierarchical targeting capability, and their therapeutic indices are often compromised by either poor tumor accumulation, inefficient cellular internalization, or inaccurate subcellular localization. This Review outlines current and prospective strategies in the design of tumor tissue-, cell-, and organelle-targeted cancer nanomedicines, and highlights the latest progress in hierarchical targeting technologies that can dynamically integrate these three different stages of static tumor targeting to maximize therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we briefly discuss the current challenges and future opportunities for the clinical translation of cancer nanomedicines.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles for effective central nervous system target delivery: Insights and challenges

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including brain tumor, ischemic stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease, threaten human health. And the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) hinders the delivery of drugs and the design of drug targeting delivery vehicles. Over the past decades, great interest has been given to cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles since the rise of targeting drug delivery systems and biomimetic nanotechnology. Cell membranes are regarded as natural multifunction biomaterials, and provide potential for targeting delivery design and modification. Cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles appear timely with the participation of cell membranes and nanoparticles, and raises new lights for BBB recognition and transport, and effective therapy with its biological multifunction and high biocompatibility. This review summarizes existing challenges in CNS target delivery and recent advances of different kinds of cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles for effective CNS target delivery, and deliberates the BBB targeting mechanism. It also discusses the challenges and possibility of clinical translation, and presents new insights for development.

Cancer cell-mitochondria hybrid membrane coated Gboxin loaded nanomedicines for glioblastoma treatment

Glioblastoma (GBM) remains the most lethal malignant tumours. Gboxin, an oxidative phosphorylation inhibitor, specifically restrains GBM growth by inhibiting the activity of F₀F₁ ATPase complex V. However, its anti-GBM effect is seriously limited by poor blood circulation, the blood brain barrier (BBB) and non-specific GBM tissue/cell uptake, leading to insufficient Gboxin accumulation at GBM sites, which limits its further clinical application. Here we present a biomimetic nanomedicine (HM-NPs@G) by coating cancer cell-mitochondria hybrid membrane (HM) on the surface of Gboxin-loaded nanoparticles. An additional design element uses a reactive oxygen species responsive polymer to facilitate at-site Gboxin release. The HM camouflaging endows HM-NPs@G with unique features including good biocompatibility, improved pharmacokinetic profile, efficient BBB permeability and homotypic dual tumour cell and mitochondria targeting. The results suggest that HM-NPs@G achieve improved blood circulation (4.90 h versus 0.47 h of free Gboxin) and tumour accumulation (7.73% ID/g versus 1.06% ID/g shown by free Gboxin). Effective tumour inhibition in orthotopic U87MG GBM and patient derived X01 GBM stem cell xenografts in female mice with extended survival time and negligible side effects are also noted. We believe that the biomimetic Gboxin nanomedicine represents a promising treatment for brain tumours with clinical potential.

Virus-Based Biological Systems as Next-Generation Carriers for the Therapy of Central Nervous System Diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases are currently a major challenge in medicine. One reason is the presence of the blood-brain barrier, which is a significant limitation for currently used medicinal substances that are characterized by a high molecular weight and a short half-life. Despite the application of nanotechnology, there is still the problem of targeting and the occurrence of systemic toxicity. Viral vectors and virus-like particles (VLPs) may provide a promising solution to these challenges. Their small size, biocompatibility, ability to carry medicinal substances, and specific targeting of neural cells make them useful in research when formulating a new generation of biological carriers. Additionally, the possibility of genetic modification has the potential for gene therapy. Among the most promising viral vectors are adeno-associated viruses, adenoviruses, and retroviruses. This is due to their natural tropism to neural cells, as well as the possibility of genetic and surface modification. Moreover, VLPs that are devoid of infectious genetic material in favor of increasing capacity are also leading the way for research on new drug delivery systems. The aim of this study is to review the most recent reports on the use of viral vectors and VLPs in the treatment of selected CNS diseases.

Integrating the characteristic genes of macrophage pseudotime analysis in single-cell RNA-seq to construct a prediction model of atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Macrophages play an important role in the occurrence and development of atherosclerosis. However, few existing studies have deliberately analyzed the changes in characteristic genes in the process of macrophage phenotype transformation.

METHOD

Carotid atherosclerotic plaque single-cell RNA (scRNA) sequencing data were analyzed to define the cells involved and determine their transcriptomic characteristics. KEGG enrichment analysis, CIBERSORT, ESTIMATE, support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) were applied to bulk sequencing data. All data were downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO).

RESULT

Nine cell clusters were identified. M1 macrophages, M2 macrophages, and M2/M1 macrophages were identified as three clusters within the macrophages. According to pseudotime analysis, M2/M1 macrophages and M2 macrophages can be transformed into M1 macrophages. The ROC curve values of the six genes in the test group were statistically significant (AUC (IL1RN): 0.899, 95% CI: 0.764-0.990; AUC (NRP1): 0.817, 95% CI: 0.620-0.971; AUC (TAGLN): 0.846, 95% CI: 0.678-0.971; AUC (SPARCL1): 0.825, 95% CI: 0.620-0.988; AUC (EMP2): 0.808, 95% CI: 0.630-0.947; AUC (ACTA2): 0.784, 95% CI: 0.591-0.938). The atherosclerosis prediction model showed significant statistical significance in both the train group (AUC: 0.909, 95% CI: 0.842-0.967) and the test group (AUC: 0.812, 95% CI: 0.630-0.966).

CONCLUSIONS

IL1RNHigh M1, NRP1High M2, ACTA2High M2/M1, EMP2High M1/M1, SPACL1High M2/M1 and TAGLNHigh M2/M1 macrophages play key roles in the occurrence and development of arterial atherosclerosis. These marker genes of macrophage phenotypic transformation can also be used to establish a model to predict the occurrence of atherosclerosis.

How Nanotherapeutic Platforms Play a Key Role in Glioma? A Comprehensive Review of Literature

Glioblastoma (GBM), a highly aggressive form of brain cancer, is considered one of the deadliest cancers, and even with the most advanced medical treatments, most affected patients have a poor prognosis. However, recent advances in nanotechnology offer promising avenues for the development of versatile therapeutic and diagnostic nanoplatforms that can deliver drugs to brain tumor sites through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Despite these breakthroughs, the use of nanoplatforms in GBM therapy has been a subject of great controversy due to concerns over the biosafety of these nanoplatforms. In recent years, biomimetic nanoplatforms have gained unprecedented attention in the biomedical field. With advantages such as extended circulation times, and improved immune evasion and active targeting compared to conventional nanosystems, bionanoparticles have shown great potential for use in biomedical applications. In this prospective article, we endeavor to comprehensively review the application of bionanomaterials in the treatment of glioma, focusing on the rational design of multifunctional nanoplatforms to facilitate BBB infiltration, promote efficient accumulation in the tumor, enable precise tumor imaging, and achieve remarkable tumor suppression. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges and future trends in this field. Through careful design and optimization of nanoplatforms, researchers are paving the way toward safer and more effective therapies for GBM patients. The development of biomimetic nanoplatform applications for glioma therapy is a promising avenue for precision medicine, which could ultimately improve patient outcomes and quality of life.

Biomimetic Cell-Derived Nanoparticles: Emerging Platforms for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy can significantly prevent tumor growth and metastasis by activating the autoimmune system without destroying normal cells. Although cancer immunotherapy has made some achievements in clinical cancer treatment, it is still restricted by systemic immunotoxicity, immune cell dysfunction, cancer heterogeneity, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME). Biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles are attracting considerable interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower immunogenicity. Moreover, biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles can achieve different preferred biological effects due to their inherent abundant source cell-relevant functions. This review summarizes the latest developments in biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy, discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in cancer immunotherapy, and analyzes the challenges for clinical transformation.

Cell-Membrane-Coated and Cell-Penetrating Peptide-Conjugated Trimagnetic Nanoparticles for Targeted Magnetic Hyperthermia of Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate malignancy represents the second leading cause of cancer-specific death among the male population worldwide. Herein, enhanced intracellular magnetic fluid hyperthermia is applied in vitro to treat prostate cancer (PCa) cells with minimum invasiveness and toxicity and highly specific targeting. We designed and optimized novel shape-anisotropic magnetic core-shell-shell nanoparticles (i.e., trimagnetic nanoparticles - TMNPs) with significant magnetothermal conversion following an exchange coupling effect to an external alternating magnetic field (AMF). The functional properties of the best candidate in terms of heating efficiency (i.e., Fe₃O₄@Mn_0.5Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄@CoFe₂O₄) were exploited following surface decoration with PCa cell membranes (CM) and/or LN1 cell-penetrating peptide (CPP). We demonstrated that the combination of biomimetic dual CM-CPP targeting and AMF responsiveness significantly induces caspase 9-mediated apoptosis of PCa cells. Furthermore, a downregulation of the cell cycle progression markers and a decrease of the migration rate in surviving cells were observed in response to the TMNP-assisted magnetic hyperthermia, suggesting a reduction in cancer cell aggressiveness.

Targeting Peptides: The New Generation of Targeted Drug Delivery Systems

Peptides can act as targeting molecules, analogously to oligonucleotide aptamers and antibodies. They are particularly efficient in terms of production and stability in physiological environments; in recent years, they have been increasingly studied as targeting agents for several diseases, from tumors to central nervous system disorders, also thanks to the ability of some of them to cross the blood-brain barrier. In this review, we will describe the techniques employed for their experimental and in silico design, as well as their possible applications. We will also discuss advancements in their formulation and chemical modifications that make them even more stable and effective. Finally, we will discuss how their use could effectively help to overcome various physiological problems and improve existing treatments.

Forging New Therapeutic Targets: Efforts of Tumor Derived Exosomes to Prepare the Pre-Metastatic Niche for Cancer Cell Dissemination and Dormancy

Tumor-derived exosomes play a multifaceted role in preparing the pre-metastatic niche, promoting cancer dissemination, and regulating cancer cell dormancy. A brief review of three types of cells implicated in metastasis and an overview of other types of extracellular vesicles related to metastasis are described. A central focus of this review is on how exosomes influence cancer progression throughout metastatic disease. Exosomes are crucial mediators of intercellular communication by transferring their cargo to recipient cells, modulating their behavior, and promoting tumor pro-gression. First, their functional role in cancer cell dissemination in the peripheral blood by facilitating the establishment of a pro-angiogenic and pro-inflammatory niche is described during organotro-pism and in lymphatic-mediated metastasis. Second, tumor-derived exosomes can transfer molecular signals that induce cell cycle arrest, dormancy, and survival pathways in disseminated cells, promoting a dormant state are reviewed. Third, several studies highlight exosome involvement in maintaining cellular dormancy in the bone marrow endosteum. Finally, the clinical implications of exosomes as biomarkers or diagnostic tools for cancer progression are also outlined. Understanding the complex interplay between tumor-derived exosomes and the pre-metastatic niche is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target metastasis and prevent cancer recurrence. To that end, several examples of how exosomes or other nanocarriers are used as a drug delivery system to inhibit cancer metastasis are discussed. Strategies are discussed to alter exosome cargo content for better loading capacity or direct cell targeting by integrins. Further, pre-clinical models or Phase I clinical trials implementing exosomes or other nanocarriers to attack metastatic cancer cells are highlighted.

Lipid-based nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

As the fourth most important cancer management strategy except surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, cancer immunotherapy has been confirmed to elicit durable antitumor effects in the clinic by leveraging the patient's own immune system to eradicate the cancer cells. However, the limited population of patients who benefit from the current immunotherapies and the immune related adverse events hinder its development. The immunosuppressive microenvironment is the main cause of the failure, which leads to cancer immune evasion and immunity cycle blockade. Encouragingly, nanotechnology has been engineered to enhance the efficacy and reduce off-target toxicity of their therapeutic cargos by spatiotemporally controlling the biodistribution and release kinetics. Among them, lipid-based nanoparticles are the first nanomedicines to make clinical translation, which are now established platforms for diverse areas. In this perspective, we discuss the available lipid-based nanoparticles in research and market here, then describe their application in cancer immunotherapy, with special emphasis on the T cells-activated and macrophages-targeted delivery system. Through perpetuating each step of cancer immunity cycle, lipid-based nanoparticles can reduce immunosuppression and promote drug delivery to trigger robust antitumor response.

Carbon Dots for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases: An Appraisal of In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

In recent decades, several studies demonstrating various applications of carbon dots (C-dots), including metal sensing, bioimaging, pH sensing, and antimicrobial activities, have been published. Recent developments have shifted this trend toward biomedical applications that target various biomarkers relevant to chronic diseases. However, relevant developments and research results regarding the anti-inflammatory properties of C-dots against inflammation-associated diseases have not been systematically reviewed. Hence, this review discusses the anti-inflammatory effects of C-dots in in vivo and in vitro models of LPS-induced inflammation, gout, cartilage tissue engineering, drug-induced inflammation, spinal cord injury, wound healing, liver diseases, stomach cancer, gastric ulcers, acute kidney and lung injury, psoriasis, fever or hypothermia, and bone tissue regeneration. The compiled studies demonstrate the promising potential of C-dots as anti-inflammatory agents for the development of new drugs.

The blood-brain barrier: structure, regulation, and drug delivery

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a natural protective membrane that prevents central nervous system (CNS) from toxins and pathogens in blood. However, the presence of BBB complicates the pharmacotherapy for CNS disorders as the most chemical drugs and biopharmaceuticals have been impeded to enter the brain. Insufficient drug delivery into the brain leads to low therapeutic efficacy as well as aggravated side effects due to the accumulation in other organs and tissues. Recent breakthrough in materials science and nanotechnology provides a library of advanced materials with customized structure and property serving as a powerful toolkit for targeted drug delivery. In-depth research in the field of anatomical and pathological study on brain and BBB further facilitates the development of brain-targeted strategies for enhanced BBB crossing. In this review, the physiological structure and different cells contributing to this barrier are summarized. Various emerging strategies for permeability regulation and BBB crossing including passive transcytosis, intranasal administration, ligands conjugation, membrane coating, stimuli-triggered BBB disruption, and other strategies to overcome BBB obstacle are highlighted. Versatile drug delivery systems ranging from organic, inorganic, and biologics-derived materials with their synthesis procedures and unique physio-chemical properties are summarized and analyzed. This review aims to provide an up-to-date and comprehensive guideline for researchers in diverse fields, offering perspectives on further development of brain-targeted drug delivery system.

Cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles for the fight against pathogenic bacteria, toxins, and inflammatory cytokines associated with sepsis

Sepsis is the main cause of death in patients suffering from serious illness. Yet, there is still no specific treatment for sepsis, and management relies on infection control. Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (MNPs) are a new class of biomimetic nanoparticles based on covering the surface of synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) with natural cell membranes. They retain the physicochemical properties of synthetic nanomaterials and inherit the specific properties of cellular membranes, showing excellent biological compatibility, enhanced biointerfacing capabilities, capacity to hold cellular functions and characteristics, immunological escape, and longer half-life when in circulation. Additionally, they prevent the decomposition of the encapsulated drug and active targeting. Over the years, studies on MNPs have multiplied and a breakthrough has been achieved for cancer therapy. Nevertheless, the use of "bio"-related approaches is still rare for treating sepsis. Herein, we discussed current state-of-the-art on MNPs for the treatment of bacterial sepsis by combining the pathophysiology and therapeutic benefits of sepsis, i.e., pathogenic bacteria, bacteria-producing toxins, and inflammatory cytokines produced in the dysregulated inflammatory response associated with sepsis.

The Dawn of a New Era: Targeting the "Undruggables" with Antibody-Based Therapeutics

The high selectivity and affinity of antibodies toward their antigens have made them a highly valuable tool in disease therapy, diagnosis, and basic research. A plethora of chemical and genetic approaches have been devised to make antibodies accessible to more "undruggable" targets and equipped with new functions of illustrating or regulating biological processes more precisely. In this Review, in addition to introducing how naked antibodies and various antibody conjugates (such as antibody-drug conjugates, antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates, antibody-enzyme conjugates, etc.) work in therapeutic applications, special attention has been paid to how chemistry tools have helped to optimize the therapeutic outcome (i.e., with enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects) or facilitate the multifunctionalization of antibodies, with a focus on emerging fields such as targeted protein degradation, real-time live-cell imaging, catalytic labeling or decaging with spatiotemporal control as well as the engagement of antibodies inside cells. With advances in modern chemistry and biotechnology, well-designed antibodies and their derivatives via size miniaturization or multifunctionalization together with efficient delivery systems have emerged, which have gradually improved our understanding of important biological processes and paved the way to pursue novel targets for potential treatments of various diseases.

Smart Nanomaterials in Cancer Theranostics: Challenges and Opportunities

Cancer is ranked as the second leading cause of death globally. Traditional cancer therapies including chemotherapy are flawed, with off-target and on-target toxicities on the normal cells, requiring newer strategies to improve cell selective targeting. The application of nanomaterial has been extensively studied and explored as chemical biology tools in cancer theranostics. It shows greater applications toward stability, biocompatibility, and increased cell permeability, resulting in precise targeting, and mitigating the shortcomings of traditional cancer therapies. The nanoplatform offers an exciting opportunity to gain targeting strategies and multifunctionality. The advent of nanotechnology, in particular the development of smart nanomaterials, has transformed cancer diagnosis and treatment. The large surface area of nanoparticles is enough to encapsulate many molecules and the ability to functionalize with various biosubstrates such as DNA, RNA, aptamers, and antibodies, which helps in theranostic action. Comparatively, biologically derived nanomaterials perceive advantages over the nanomaterials produced by conventional methods in terms of economy, ease of production, and reduced toxicity. The present review summarizes various techniques in cancer theranostics and emphasizes the applications of smart nanomaterials (such as organic nanoparticles (NPs), inorganic NPs, and carbon-based NPs). We also critically discussed the advantages and challenges impeding their translation in cancer treatment and diagnostic applications. This review concludes that the use of smart nanomaterials could significantly improve cancer theranostics and will facilitate new dimensions for tumor detection and therapy.

Organic Nanodelivery Systems as a New Platform in the Management of Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review from Preclinical to Clinical Studies

Breast cancer accounts for approximately 25% of cancer cases and 16.5% of cancer deaths in women, and the World Health Organization predicts that the number of new cases will increase by almost 70% over the next two decades, mainly due to an ageing population. Effective diagnostic and treatment strategies are, therefore, urgently required for improving cure rates among patients since current therapeutic modalities have many limitations and side effects. Nanomedicine is evolving as a promising approach for cancer management, including breast cancer, and various types of organic and inorganic nanomaterials have been investigated for their role in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. Following an overview on breast cancer characteristics and pathogenesis and challenges of the current treatment strategies, the therapeutic potential of biocompatible organic-based nanoparticles such as liposomes and polymeric micelles that have been tested in breast cancer models are reviewed. The efficacies of different drug delivery and targeting strategies are documented, ranging from synthetic to cell-derived nanoformulations together with a summary of the interaction of nanoparticles with externally applied energy such as radiotherapy. The clinical translation of nanoformulations for breast cancer treatment is summarized including those undergoing clinical trials.

Functional nano-systems for transdermal drug delivery and skin therapy

Transdermal drug delivery is one of the least intrusive and patient-friendly ways for therapeutic agent administration. Recently, functional nano-systems have been demonstrated as one of the most promising strategies to treat skin diseases by improving drug penetration across the skin barrier and achieving therapeutically effective drug concentrations in the target cutaneous tissues. Here, a brief review of functional nano-systems for promoting transdermal drug delivery is presented. The fundamentals of transdermal delivery, including skin biology and penetration routes, are introduced. The characteristics of functional nano-systems for facilitating transdermal drug delivery are elucidated. Moreover, the fabrication of various types of functional transdermal nano-systems is systematically presented. Multiple techniques for evaluating the transdermal capacities of nano-systems are illustrated. Finally, the advances in the applications of functional transdermal nano-systems for treating different skin diseases are summarized.

Cell Membrane Biomimetic Nanoparticles with Potential in Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is to blame for about 60% of dementia cases worldwide. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents many medications for AD from having clinical therapeutic effects that can be used to treat the affected area. Many researchers have turned their attention to cell membrane biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) to solve this situation. Among them, NPs can extend the half-life of drugs in the body as the "core" of the wrapped drug, and the cell membrane acts as the "shell" of the wrapped NPs to functionalize the NPs, which can further improve the delivery efficiency of nano-drug delivery systems. Researchers are learning that cell membrane biomimetic NPs can circumvent the BBB's restriction, prevent harm to the body's immune system, extend the period that NPs spend in circulation, and have good biocompatibility and cytotoxicity, which increases efficacy of drug release. This review summarized the detailed production process and features of core NPs and further introduced the extraction methods of cell membrane and fusion methods of cell membrane biomimetic NPs. In addition, the targeting peptides for modifying biomimetic NPs to target the BBB to demonstrate the broad prospects of cell membrane biomimetic NPs drug delivery systems were summarized.