Dominant negative mutant of ionotropic glutamate receptor subunit GluR3: implications for the role of a cysteine residue for its channel activity and pharmacological properties

Modulation of the dimer interface at ionotropic glutamate-like receptor delta2 by D-serine and extracellular calcium

GluRdelta2 is a member of the iGluR family, but despite a prominent role in cerebellar synaptic plasticity, this receptor does not appear to function as an ion channel. Endogenous ligands that modulate the activity of native GluRdelta2 in the cerebellum have not been identified, but two candidate modulators are d-serine and extracellular calcium. Taking advantage of known crystal structures and spontaneously active GluRdelta2 receptors containing the lurcher mutation (GluRdelta2(Lc)), we investigated the mechanism by which calcium and d-serine regulate the activity of GluRdelta2(Lc). Our data suggest that calcium binding stabilizes the dimer interface formed between two agonist-binding domains and increases GluRdelta2(Lc) currents. The data further suggest that d-serine binding induces rearrangements at the dimer interface to diminish GluRdelta2(Lc) currents by a mechanism that resembles desensitization at AMPA and kainate receptors. Thus, we propose that calcium and d-serine binding have opposing effects on the stability of the dimer interface. Furthermore, the effects of calcium are observed at concentrations that are within the physiological range, suggesting that the ability of native GluRdelta2 to respond to ligand binding may be modulated by extracellular calcium. These findings place GluRdelta2 among AMPA and kainate receptors, where the dimer interface is not only a biologically important site for functional regulation, but also an important target for exogenous and endogenous ligands that modulate receptor function.

GluR3 Flip and Flop: Differences in Channel Opening Kinetics

Ample evidence from earlier studies of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, GluR3 included, suggests that alternative splicing not only enriches AMPA receptor diversity but also, more importantly, creates receptor variants that are functionally different. However, it is not known whether alternative splicing affects the receptor channel opening that occurs in the microsecond time domain. Using a laser-pulse photolysis technique combined with whole-cell recording, we characterized the channel opening rate process for two alternatively spliced variants of GluR3, i.e., GluR3flip and GluR3flop. We show that the alternative splicing that generates flip and flop variants of GluR3 receptors regulates the channel opening process by controlling the rate of channel closing but not the rate of channel opening or the glutamate binding affinity. Specifically, the flop variant closes its channel almost 4-fold faster than the flip variant. We therefore propose that the function of the flip-flop sequence module in the channel opening process of AMPA receptors is to stabilize the open channel conformation, presumably by its pivotal structural location. Furthermore, a comparison of the flip isoform among all AMPA receptor subunits, based on the magnitude of the channel opening rate constant, suggests that GluR3 is kinetically more similar to GluR2 and GluR4 than to GluR1.

The expression of dominant-negative subunits selectively suppresses neuronal AMPA and kainate receptors

Glutamate-gated ion channels are widely expressed in neurons where they serve a host of cellular functions. An appealing, but yet unexplored, way to delineate the functions of particular glutamate receptor subtypes is to direct the expression of dominant-negative and gain-of-function mutant subunits. We tested the ability of two dominant-negative subunits, an alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazolproprionic acid receptor subunit and a kainate receptor subunit, to silence recombinant and neuronal glutamate receptors. Co-expression studies in non-neuronal cells indicated that the inclusion of a single mutant subunit was sufficient to silence the receptor. When expressed in cerebellar granule cells, the dominant-negative subunits silenced native channels in a subtype-specific fashion. Immunocytochemical staining of control and transfected neurons, as well as studies with a gain-of-function glutamate receptor-1 mutant, indicated that the mutant subunits were expressed at levels roughly equal to the total abundance of related native subunits, and both dominant-negatives suppressed native channel expression 60-65% when tested 24 h post-transfection. If co-assembly of the mutant subunits with related native subunits is combinatorial, this level of suppression gives receptor half-lives of approximately 20 h.

A double cysteine trkA mutant exhibiting reduced NGF binding and delayed Erk signaling

The NGF receptor trkA is a tyrosine kinase receptor comprising an extracellular domain with a ligand-binding site, a transmembrane-spanning domain (TMD), and an intracellular domain composed of a juxtamembrane region (JMR), a tyrosine kinase domain, and a short carboxy-terminal tail. Nerve growth factor (NGF) binds and activates this receptor, leading to phosphorylation of signaling substrates involved in neuronal proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Human trkA contains one cysteine residue in the TMD (C423) and another, separated by 12 residues, in the JMR (C436). We hypothesized that the removal of one or both of the cysteines would affect NGF-induced signaling of the trkA receptor. Here we show that NGF induces rapid receptor autophosphorylation in a wild-type, trkA-expressing clone (WT11), in a single cysteine trkA mutants (C423T or C436A), but lower autophosphorylation activity in a double-cysteine trkA mutant (C423T/C436A). WT11 and SM cells had similar binding affinity, but that of DM cells was lower, according to the NGF radioreceptor assay. NGF-induced Erk phosphorylation was rapid in WT11 and C423T cells, but delayed in C436A and C423T/C436A cells. NGF induced [3H]thymidine incorporation into WT11 and SM cells, but had no effect on DM cells. However, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) induced rapid phosphorylation of Erk1/2, and [3H]thymidine incorporation in NIH3T3, WT11, single mutant (SM), and double mutant (DM) cells, suggesting that the impaired NGF-induced Erk phosphorylation and thymidine incorporation observed in DM cells are due to the double-cysteine mutations in the trkA receptor. Cumulatively, our findings support a model in which Cys436 of the trkA is responsible for the rapid transfer of the transmembrane occupancy signal to the SHC adaptor protein for activation of the Ras-Erk pathway and DNA synthesis.

Activation of muscarinic M3-like receptors and beta-adrenoceptors, but not M2-like muscarinic receptors or alpha-adrenoceptors, directly modulates corticostriatal neurotransmission in vitro

The aim of this study was to characterize the modulation of synaptic transmission in the glutamatergic corticostriatal pathway by cholinergic and adrenergic receptors. In coronal slices of mouse brain, negative-going field potentials were recorded in the dorsal striatum in response to stimulation of the overlying white matter, and their susceptibility to various pharmacological manipulations was studied. The responses were mediated by alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type glutamate receptors, since they were augmented by aniracetam (0.5-1.5 mM), a positive modulator of AMPA-type glutamate receptors, and blocked by 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (> or = 10 microM), a selective antagonist of AMPA receptors. Carbachol (10 microM), a muscarinic agonist, reduced the size of responses and abolished paired-pulse depression; these effects being consistent with previous studies indicating that muscarinic activation inhibits release of glutamate in the corticostriatal pathway. Muscarinic antagonists could block the effect of carbachol. Their rank order was: 10 microM scopolamine (a non-selective muscarinic antagonist) > or = 1 microM 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methyl-piperidine (M3/M1 antagonist)>1 microM pirenzepine (M1 antagonist)>10 microM methoctramine (M2 antagonist). McN-A-343 (1-10 microM), an M1 muscarinic agonist, was ineffective in this preparation. In contrast, isoproterenol (10-30 microM), a beta-adrenergic agonist, slightly increased the synaptic responses, but it did not affect paired-pulse depression. None of alpha-adrenergic agents (30 nM-1.0 microM dexmedetomidine, an alpha2-adrenergic agonist, 0.3 microM atipamezole, an alpha2-adrenergic antagonist or 30 microM phenylephrine, an alpha1-adrenergic agonist) influenced the size of the responses; neither did these drugs alter paired-pulse depression. These results indicate that the activation of striatal M3-like muscarinic receptors and beta-adrenoceptors, but not M2-like muscarinic receptors and alpha-adrenoceptors, modulates directly corticostriatal glutamatergic neurotransmission.

Disulfide bonding and cysteine accessibility in the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptor subunit GluRD. Implications for redox modulation of glutamate receptors

Redox agents elicit a wide variety of effects on the ligand affinity and channel properties of ionotropic glutamate receptors and have been proposed as potential therapeutic agents for neuropathological processes. One such effect is the dithiothreitol (DTT)-induced increase in agonist affinity of certain ionotropic glutamate receptors (GluRs), presumably due to reduction of a disulfide bridge formed between cysteine residues conserved among all GluRs. Using biochemical techniques, this disulfide is shown to exist in the ligand-binding domain of the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit GluRD, although GluRD homomeric receptors are not modulated by DTT. The disulfide is inaccessible to DTT, explaining the insensitivity of the intact receptor. Single mutants C260S and C315S show a 2-3-fold higher ligand affinity than wild-type, as observed for several intact GluRs, indicating that the affinity switch is completely contained within the ligand-binding domain. Also, mutants lacking the native disulfide show non-native oligomerization and dramatically reduced specific activity. These facts suggest that the disulfide bridge is required for the stability of the ligand-binding domain, explaining its conservation. A third cysteine residue in the ligand-binding domain exists as a free thiol, partially sequestered in a hydrophobic environment. These results provide a framework for interpreting a variety of GluR redox modulatory phenomena.