Perhydrohistrionicotoxin: a potential ligand for the ion conductance modulator of the acetylcholine receptor

Divergent Nine-Step Syntheses of Perhydrohistrionicotoxin Analogs and Their Inhibition Activity Toward Chicken α4β2-Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Histrionicotoxin (HTX) alkaloids, which are isolated from Colombian poison dart frogs, are analgesic neurotoxins that modulate nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) as antagonists. Perhydrohistrionicotoxin (pHTX) is the potent synthetic analogue of HTX and possesses a 1-azaspiro[5.5]undecane skeleton common to the HTX family. Here, we show for the first time the divergent nine-step synthesis of pHTX and its three stereoisomers from the known aldehyde through a one-step construction of the 1-azaspiro[5.5]undecane framework from a linear amino ynone substrate. Surprisingly, some pHTX diastereomers exhibited antagonistic activities on the chicken α4β2-neuronal nAChRs that were more potent than pHTX.

Bioactive alkaloids from the venom of Dendrobatoidea Cope, 1865: a scoping review

Bioactive compounds derived from secondary metabolism in animals have refined selectivity and potency for certain biological targets. The superfamily Dendrobatoidea is adapted to the dietary sequestration and secretion of toxic alkaloids, which play a role in several biological activities, and thus serve as a potential source for pharmacological and biotechnological applications. This article constitutes a scoping review to understand the trends in experimental research involving bioactive alkaloids derived from Dendrobatoidea based upon scientometric approaches. Forty-eight (48) publications were found in 30 journals in the period of 60 years, between 1962 and 2022. More than 23 structural classes of alkaloids were cited, with 27.63% for batrachotoxins, 13.64% for pyridinics, with an emphasis on epibatidine, 16.36% for pumiliotoxins, and 11.82% for histrionicotoxins. These tests included in vivo (54.9%), in vitro (39.4%), and in silico simulations (5.6%). Most compounds (54.8%) were isolated from skin extracts, whereas the remainder were obtained through molecular synthesis. Thirteen main biological activities were identified, including acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (27.59%), sodium channel inhibitors (12.07%), cardiac (12.07%), analgesic (8.62%), and neuromuscular effects (8.62%). The substances were cited as being of natural origin in the "Dendrobatidae" family, genus "Phyllobates," "Dendrobates," and seven species: Epipedobates tricolor, Phyllobates aurotaenia, Oophaga histrionica, Oophaga pumilio, Phyllobates terribilis, Epipedobates anthonyi, and Ameerega flavopicta. To date, only a few biological activities have been experimentally tested; hence, further studies on the bioprospecting of animal compounds and ecological approaches are needed.

Synthetic approaches towards alkaloids bearing α-tertiary amines

Alkaloids account for some of the most beautiful and biologically active natural products. Although they are usually classified along biosynthetic criteria, they can also be categorized according to certain structural motifs. Amongst these, the α-tertiary amine (ATA), i.e. a tetrasubstituted carbon atom surrounded by three carbons and one nitrogen, is particularly interesting. A limited number of methods have been described to access this functional group and fewer still are commonly used in synthesis. Herein, we review some approaches to asymmetrically access ATAs and provide an overview of alkaloid total syntheses where those have been employed.

Phosphorimaging detection and quantitation for isotopic ion flux assays

A 96-well-microplate-based ion flux method utilizing readily available autoradiographic phosphorimaging detection is described. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated (22)Na influx in four cultured cell lines provided satisfactory concentration-response data for epibatidine and several other nicotinic agonists. The data were consistent with data obtained using standard 6-well assays. Assays for nicotinic-receptor-mediated (86)Rb efflux produced data similar to data obtained with the (22)Na influx assay. However, assays for (45)Ca influx were not successful, although (45)Ca was readily detected and quantified. Voltage-gated sodium channel-mediated (22)Na influx in a neuroblastoma cell line allowed assay of the effects of such sodium channel activators as batrachotoxin and a pumiliotoxin B/scorpion venom combination. Phosphorimaging detection allows for reliable beta counting of up to 1,200 simultaneous samples with excellent sensitivity and is amenable for application to high-throughput screening.

Nicotinic Agonists, Antagonists, and Modulators From Natural Sources

1. Acetylcholine receptors were initially defined as nicotinic or muscarinic, based on selective activation by two natural products, nicotine and muscarine. Several further nicotinic agonists have been discovered from natural sources, including cytisine, anatoxin, ferruginine, anabaseine, epibatidine, and epiquinamide. These have provided lead structures for the design of a wide range of synthetic agents. 2. Natural sources have also provided competitive nicotinic antagonists, such as the Erythrina alkaloids, the tubocurarines, and methyllycaconitine. Noncompetitive antagonists, such as the histrionicotoxins, various izidines, decahydroquinolines, spiropyrrolizidine oximes, pseudophrynamines, ibogaine, strychnine, cocaine, and sparteine have come from natural sources. Finally, galanthamine, codeine, and ivermectin represent positive modulators of nicotinic function, derived from natural sources. 3. Clearly, research on acetylcholine receptors and functions has been dependent on key natural products and the synthetic agents that they inspired.

Topology of ligand binding sites on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) presents two very well differentiated domains for ligand binding that account for different cholinergic properties. In the hydrophilic extracellular region of both alpha subunits there exist the binding sites for agonists such as the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) and for competitive antagonists such as d-tubocurarine. Agonists trigger the channel opening upon binding while competitive antagonists compete for the former ones and inhibit its pharmacological action. Identification of all residues involved in recognition and binding of agonist and competitive antagonists is a primary objective in order to understand which structural components are related to the physiological function of the AChR. The picture for the localisation of the agonist/competitive antagonist binding sites is now clearer in the light of newer and better experimental evidence. These sites are mainly located on both alpha subunits in a pocket approximately 30-35 A above the surface membrane. Since both alpha subunits are sequentially identical, the observed high and low affinity for agonists on the receptor is conditioned by the interaction of the alpha subunit with the delta or the gamma chain, respectively. This relationship is opposite for curare-related drugs. This molecular interaction takes place probably at the interface formed by the different subunits. The principal component for the agonist/competitive antagonist binding sites involves several aromatic residues, in addition to the cysteine pair at 192-193, in three loops-forming binding domains (loops A-C). Other residues such as the negatively changed aspartates and glutamates (loop D), Thr or Tyr (loop E), and Trp (loop F) from non-alpha subunits were also found to form the complementary component of the agonist/competitive antagonist binding sites. Neurotoxins such as alpha-, kappa-bungarotoxin and several alpha-conotoxins seem to partially overlap with the agonist/competitive antagonist binding sites at multiple point of contacts. The alpha subunits also carry the binding site for certain acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as eserine and for the neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine which activate the receptor without interacting with the classical agonist binding sites. The link between specific subunits by means of the binding of ACh molecules might play a pivotal role in the relative shift among receptor subunits. This conformational change would allow for the opening of the intrinsic receptor cation channel transducting the external chemical signal elicited by the agonist into membrane depolarisation. The ion flux activity can be inhibited by non-competitive inhibitors (NCIs). For this kind of drugs, a population of low-affinity binding sites has been found at the lipid-protein interface of the AChR. In addition, several high-affinity binding sites have been found to be located at different rings on the M2 transmembrane domain, namely luminal binding sites. In this regard, the serine ring is the locus for exogenous NCIs such as chlorpromazine, triphenylmethylphosphonium, the local anaesthetic QX-222, phencyclidine, and trifluoromethyliodophenyldiazirine. Trifluoromethyliodophenyldiazirine also binds to the valine ring, which is the postulated site for cembranoids. Additionally, the local anaesthetic meproadifen binding site seems to be located at the outer or extracellular ring. Interestingly, the M2 domain is also the locus for endogenous NCIs such as the neuropeptide substance P and the neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine. In contrast with this fact, experimental evidence supports the hypothesis for the existence of other NCI high-affinity binding sites located not at the channel lumen but at non-luminal binding domains. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Luminal and non-luminal non-competitive inhibitor binding sites on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor presents two very well differentiated domains for ligand binding that account for different cholinergic properties. In the hydrophilic extracellular region of the alpha subunit exist the binding sites for agonists such as the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which upon binding trigger the channel opening, and for competitive antagonists such as d-tubocurarine, which compete for the former inhibiting its pharmacological action. For non-competitive inhibitors, a population of low-affinity binding sites have been found at the lipid-protein interface of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. In addition, at the M2 transmembrane domain, several high-affinity binding sites have been found for non-competitive inhibitors such as chlorpromazine, triphenylmethylphosphonium, the local anaesthetic QX-222 and the hydrophobic probe trifluoromethyl-iodophenyldiazirine. They are known as luminal binding sites. Although the local anaesthetic meproadifen seems to be located between the hydrophobic domains M2-M3, this locus is considered to form part of the channel mouth, thus this site can also be called a luminal binding site. In contraposition, experimental evidences support the hypothesis of the existence of other high-affinity binding sites for non-competitive inhibitors located not at the channel lumen, but at non-luminal binding domains. Among them, we can quote the binding site for quinacrine, which is located at the lipid-protein interface of the alpha M1 domain, and the binding site for ethidium, which is believed to interact with the wall of the vestibule very far away from both the lumen channel and the lipid membrane surface. The aim of this review is to discuss these recent findings relative to both structurally and functionally relevant aspects of non-competitive inhibitors of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. We will put special emphasis on the description of the localization of molecules with non-competitive antagonist properties that bind with high-affinity to luminal and non-luminal domains. The information described herein was principally obtained by means of methods such as photolabelling and site-directed mutagenesis in combination with patch-clamp. Our laboratory has contributed with data obtained by using biophysical approaches such as paramagnetic electron spin resonance and quantitative fluorescence spectroscopy.

Decahydroquinoline alkaloids: noncompetitive blockers for nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-channels in pheochromocytoma cells and Torpedo electroplax

In pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, (+)-cis-decahydroquinoline 195A (5-methyl-2-propyl-cis-decahydroquinoline) and (+)-perhydro-cis-decahydroquinoline 219A (2,5-dipropyl-cis-decahydroquinoline) inhibit carbamylcholine-elicited sodium flux with IC50 values of 1.0 and 1.5 microM, respectively. Both of these decahydroquinolines appear to enhance desensitization, although apparent lack of complete removal of (+)-perhydro-cis-219A by washing complicates interpretation of the effects of that agent. A series of cis- and trans-decahydroquinolines with substituents in the 2- and 5-position also exhibit structure-dependent inhibition of carbamylcholine-elicited sodium flux in PC12 cells and all of the decahydroquinolines inhibit binding of the noncompetitive blocking agent [3H]perhydrohistrionicotoxin to muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-channels in membranes from Torpedo electroplax. The Ki values in electroplax membranes range from 1.4 to 7.9 microM, making these alkaloids comparable in potencies to the histrionicotoxins. Potencies are increased 2- to 3-fold in the presence of an agonist, carbamylcholine. The profile of activities are similar in PC12 cells and electroplax membranes. The cis- and trans-decahydroquinolines represent another class of noncompetitive blockers for acetylcholine receptor-channels with similar activity for both muscle-type and ganglionic type nicotinic receptors.

5,8-disubstituted indolizidines: a new class of noncompetitive blockers for nicotinic receptor-channels

A series of 8-methyl-5-substituted indolizidines inhibit binding of the noncompetitive blocking agent [3H]perhydrohistrionicotoxin to muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-channels in membranes from Torpedo electroplax. The Ki values range from 0.16 to 1.12 microM, making these alkaloids among the most potent ligands for this site. Unlike most noncompetitive blockers, the potencies of the 8-methyl-5-substituted indolizidines are reduced in the presence of carbamylcholine. Indolizidine 205A (8-methyl-5-(4-pentynyl)indolizidine) is unique in enhancing binding of [3H]perhydrohistrionicotoxin by 1.5-fold. The enhancement is at a maximum at 0.01 to 0.1 microM, followed by progressive inhibition with an IC50 of about 20 microM. In the presence of carbamylcholine, which itself enhances binding of [3H]perhydrohistrionicotoxin, indolizidine 205A causes only an inhibition of binding with an IC50 of about 10 microM. Indolizidines with a hydroxy substituent on the 8-methyl group have very low activity. None of the indolizidines affect binding of [125I]alpha-bungarotoxin to acetylcholine recognition sites. In pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, indolizidine 205A has no agonist activity, but only inhibits carbamylcholine-elicited 22Na+ influx. The profile of potencies for the 8-methyl-5-substituted indolizidines is similar in electroplax membranes and PC12 cells. Indolizidines 205A and 209B (8-methyl-5-pentylindolizidine) have no apparent effect on desensitization of receptors in PC12 cells. The 5,8-disubstituted indolizidines appear to represent an atypical and potent class of noncompetitive blockers for muscle-type and ganglionic nicotinic receptor-channels.

Histrionicotoxins: effects on binding of radioligands for sodium, potassium, and calcium channels in brain membranes

A series of eight histrionicotoxins and two synthetic analogs inhibit binding of [3H]batrachotoxinin B to sites on voltage dependent sodium channels in brain membranes. Perhydrohistrionicotoxin (IC50 0.33 microM) and octahydrohistrionicotoxin (IC50 1.2 microM) are comparable in activities to potent local anesthetics. Histrionicotoxin (IC50 17 microM) and the other histrionicotoxins are much less potent. The histrionicotoxins also inhibit binding of [3H]phencyclidine to putative potassium channels in brain membranes. Histrionicotoxin (IC50 15 microM) and the other histrionicotoxins are much more potent than perhydrohistrionicotoxin (IC50 200 microM), but are at least 200-fold less potent than phencyclidine. The histrionicotoxins enhance binding of [3H]nitrendipine to sites on calcium channels in brain membranes, with the exception of perhydrohistrionicotoxin, which inhibits binding. Structure activity relationships at these channel sites and at the sites for noncompetitive blockers on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel (AChR) complex differ. The histrionicotoxins are more potent at the sites on the AChR complex than at sites on other channels with the exception of perhydrohistrionicotoxin, which has comparable potency at the AChR complex and sodium channels.

Aryldiazonium salts as photoaffinity labels of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor PCP binding site

Several aryldiazonium salts are described as irreversible blockers of the phencyclidine binding site of the nicotinic cholinergic receptor. A partial hydrophobic character increases the affinity of these salts for the phencyclidine binding site. Photoaffinity labelling with a tritiated diazonium salt in the presence of either carbamylcholine or alpha-bungarotoxin leads to incorporation of radioactivity into the 4 subunits of the receptor. Among these diazonium salts, an imidazole derivative is unique in that the photoinduced irreversible blocking in only effective when the receptor is in a desensitised state.

Demonstration and affinity labeling of a stereoselective binding site for a benzomorphan opiate on acetylcholine receptor-rich membranes from Torpedo electroplaque

The interaction of an optically pure benzomorphan opiate, (-)-N-allyl-N-normetazocine [(-)-ANMC], with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo electroplaque was studied by using radioligand binding and affinity labeling. The binding was complex with at least two specific components having equilibrium dissociation constants of 0.3 microM and 2 microM. The affinity of the higher affinity component was decreased by carbamoylcholine but not by alpha-bungarotoxin. The effect of carbamoylcholine was not blocked by alpha-bungarotoxin. In comparison, the affinity of [3H]phencyclidine, a well-characterized ligand for a high-affinity site for noncompetitive blockers on the acetylcholine receptor, is increased by carbamoylcholine and the increase is blocked by alpha-bungarotoxin. The binding of (-)-[3H]ANMC was inhibited by a number of other benzomorphans, with (-) isomers being 4- to 5-fold more potent than (+) isomers. Phencyclidine inhibits the binding of (-)-[3H]ANMC to its high-affinity site by a mechanism that is not competitive. UV-catalyzed affinity labeling indicated that the high-affinity-binding site for (-)-[3H]ANMC is at least partially associated with the delta subunit. Tryptic degradation of the Torpedo marmorata delta chain suggested that (-)-ANMC labeled a 16,000-dalton COOH-terminal portion of the subunit. In contrast, 5-azido-[3H]trimethisoquin, a photoaffinity label of the high-affinity site for noncompetitive blockers, labels a 47,000-dalton NH2-terminal fragment of the delta subunit. These results suggest that (-)-[3H]ANMC binds to sites completely distinct from the binding sites for acetylcholine. The high-affinity-binding site for (-)-ANMC and that for phencyclidine and 5-azidotrimethisoquin are allosterically coupled but are regulated differently and are probably physically distinct.

Acetylcholine receptor: an allosteric protein

The nicotine receptor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is an allosteric protein composed of four different subunits assembled in a transmembrane pentamer alpha 2 beta gamma delta. The protein carries two acetylcholine sites at the level of the alpha subunits and contains the ion channel. The complete sequence of the four subunits is known. The membrane-bound protein undergoes conformational transitions that regulate the opening of the ion channel and are affected by various categories of pharmacologically active ligands.

Influence of the alcohol moiety of pyrethroids on their interactions with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

Ten pyrethroids affected binding of [3H]perhydrohistrionicotoxin ([ 3H]H12-HTX) to the channel sites of the nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptor/channel of the electric organ of the electric ray, Torpedo ocellata, and inhibited 45Ca2+ flux through the receptor's ionic channel. Most pyrethroids stimulated binding of [3H]H12-HTX to the channel sites in 30 s, in absence of carbamylcholine, with little or no effect on binding of [3H]ACh to the receptor sites, which suggests that the pyrethroids are binding to a third kind of site. However, in presence of carbamylcholine, all pyrethroids inhibited binding of [3H]H12-HTX, with esters of cyclopentenolone more potent, and generally more rapid in doing so, than esters of alpha-cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl alcohol. Changes in the acidic moiety of the pyrethroid had little effect. Kadethrin, whose alcohol moiety is 5-benzyl-3-furylmethyl, was the most potent pyrethroid in stimulating [3H]H12-HTX binding (in absence of carbamylcholine) in 30 s (18-fold) and in inhibiting it in 120 min. The pyrethroids were more potent in their modulation of [3H]H12-HTX binding at lower temperatures. Inhibition of receptor binding and receptor-regulated ion transport by concentrations of pyrethroids similar to those at which they affect nerve conduction suggests that the nicotinic ACh receptor may be an additional target for the toxic action of pyrethroids.

Effect of histrionicotoxin on ion channels in synaptic and conducting membranes of electroplax of Electrophorus electricus

Histrionicotoxin (HTX) at low concentrations of 5-10 microM blocks the postsynaptic potential of the electroplax of Electrophorus electricus. At 100-fold higher concentrations, HTX blocks the directly evoked action potentials of the conducting membrane. The pH dependence of the blockade by HTX at synaptic channels is different from that at the conducting membrane. At the synapse HTX is more potent at acid pH, while at the conducting membrane it is more potent at basic pH. HTX at high concentrations antagonizes the effects of batrachotoxin, indicative of an effect on the batrachotoxin-sensitive sodium channels involved in action potential generation. While the effects of HTX on the synaptic channels are concentration, time, and pH dependent, the effects on the channels of the conducting membrane are, in addition, use dependent, suggesting interactions of HTX with the activated forms of these channels.

Selective labeling of the delta subunit of the acetylcholine receptor by a covalent local anesthetic

A radioactive photoaffinity derivative of the potent local anesthetic trimethisoquin, 5-azido[3H]trimethisoquin, was used to label the acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo marmorata electric organ. The product labeled the 66 000-dalton (delta) subunit of the receptor with the selectivity expected for an affinity label of the site for noncompetitive blockers. That is, the labeling was enhanced by cholinergic agonists and inhibited by other noncompetitive blockers. The 40 000-dalton (alpha)( subunit of the receptor was labeled in a manner consistent with the attachment of 5-azido[3H]trimethisoquin to an acetylcholine binding site as the incorporation of radioactivity into the alpha chain was inhibited by cholinergic agonists and antagonists, such as carbamylcholine, d-tubocurarine, and alpha-bungarotoxin. The reversible binding of [3H]phencyclidine, a potent noncompetitive blocker, to acetylcholine receptor rich membranes resembled qualitatively and quantitatively the 5-azido[3H]trimethisoquin labeling of the delta subunit and was inhibited by the prior covalent labeling of the membranes with nonradioactive 5-azidotrimethisoquin. Thus, 5-azido[3H]-trimethisoquin labels at least a portion of the binding site for noncompetitive blockers at the level of the delta subunit. The functional significance of this site and the use of 5-azidotrimethisoquin in the study of acetylcholine receptor structure and function are discussed.

[3H]Phencyclidine: a probe for the ionic channel of the nicotinic receptor

To evaluate [3H]phencyclidine ([3H]PCP)as a probe for the ionic channel of the nicotinic receptor, the characteristics of its binding to electric organ membranes od Torpedo ocellata and its effects on frog sartorius muscle were studied. Similar to PCP, [3H]PCP depressed the peak amplitude of endplate current, caused nonlinearity in the voltage-current relationship at negative potentials, accelerated the decay time of the end-plate current, and shortened the channel lifetime. Thus, [3H]PCP interacted with the ionic channel of the nicotinic receptor, although there were a few differences between its effect and that of PCP. Binding of [3H]PCP to Torpedo membranes was to sites on the ionic channel of acetylcholine (AcCho) receptor because it was saturable, dependent upon protein concentration, and inhibited by drugs that interact with the ionic channel, and the initial rate of binding was potentiated by receptor agonists. Equilibrium binding of [3H]PCP to Torpedo membranes was with two affinities, but in the presence of AcCho, [3H]PCP binding was with a single affinity. The affinities of channel drugs obtained by inhibition of binding of [3H]PCP and [3H[perhydrohistrionicotoxin to Torpedo membranes were different, with correlation coefficients of 0.52 and 0.82 in the absence and presence of a receptor agonist, respectively; this suggests differences in their binding sites on the ionic channel of the AcCho receptor.

Topographic studies of Torpedo acetylcholine receptor subunits as a transmembrane complex

The exposure of the four subunits of the acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo californica on both the extracellular and cytoplasmic faces of the postsynaptic membranes of the electroplaque cells has been investigated. Sealed membrane vesicles containing no protein components other than the receptor were isolated and were shown to have 95% of their synaptic surfaces facing the medium. The susceptibility of the four receptor subunits in these preparations to hydrolysis by trypsin both from the external and from the internal medium was used to investigate the exposure of the subunits on the synaptic and cytoplasmic surfaces of the membrane. It was shown by sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoresis of the tryptic products that all four subunits are exposed on the extracellular surface to a similar degree. All four subunits are also exposed on the internal surface of the membrane, but the apparent degree of exposure varies with the subunit size, the larger subunits being more exposed. The results are discussed in terms of a possible topographic model of the receptor as a transmembrane protein complex.

Acetylcholine receptor: complex of homologous subunits

The acetylcholine receptor from the electric ray Torpedo californica is composed of five subunits; two are identical and the other three are structurally related to them. Microsequence analysis of the four polypeptides demonstrates amino acid homology among the subunits. Further sequence analysis of both membrane-bound and Triton-solubilized, chromatographically purified receptor gave the stoichiometry of the four subunits (40,000:50,000:60,000:65,000 daltons) as 2:1:1:1, indicating that this protein is a pentameric complex with a molecular weight of 255,000 daltons. Genealogical analysis suggests that divergence from a common ancestral gene occurred early in the evolution of the receptor. This shared ancestry argues that each of the four subunits plays a functional role in the receptor's physiological action.

Inhibition of the acetylcholine receptor by histrionicotoxin

1 The action of C5-decahydrohistrionicotoxin (C5-HTX) has been investigated on the extrajunctional acetylcholine (ACh) receptors of denervated rat muscle. 2 C5-HTX causes both a rapid and slow reduction in amplitude of iontophoretic ACh potentials evoked at all frequencies from the extrajunctional receptors. 3 C5-HTX also causes a time-dependent inhibition of the iontophoretic potentials evoked at frequencies greater than 0.02 Hz. This inhibition was observed either alone or superimposed upon desensitization, and may be caused by a similar mechanism to desensitization.

Activation, inactivation, and desensitization of acetylcholine receptor channel complex detected by binding of perhydrohistrionicotoxin

The effects of receptor activation were studied on the interaction of perhydrohistrionicotoxin (H(12)-HTX) with the ionic channel of the nicotinic acetylcholine (AcCho) receptor in membranes from the electric organ of Torpedo ocellata and with the endplate region of the soleus muscle of the rat. In Torpedo membranes, the initial rate (i.e., within 30 sec) of [(3)H]H(12)-HTX bindings to the ionic channel of the AcCho receptor was accelerated 10(2)- to 10(3)-fold in the presence of carbamoylcholine (Carb). H(12)-HTX also inhibited Carb-activated (22)Na(+) influx, over 95% inhibition at 10 muM H(12)-HTX. At this concentration H(12)-HTX did not inhibit [(3)H]AcCho binding to the AcCho-receptor sites. There was good correspondence between the degree of acceleration of [(3)H]H(12)-HTX binding and the stimulation of (22)Na(+) influx over a wide range of Carb concentrations (up to 100 muM). Preincubation of Torpedo membranes with Carb decreased the initial rate of [(3)H]H(12)-HTX binding, as well as the rate of (22)Na(+) influx, which may reflect desensitization of the AcCho-receptor. d-Tubocurarine inhibited the agonist-mediated acceleration of [(3)H]H(12)-HTX binding and (22)Na(+) influx. In the soleus muscle endplate, H(12)-HTX inhibited the transient depolarization induced by microiontophoretic application of AcCho; the more receptors activated and channels opened, the stronger was the inhibition by H(12)-HTX. These findings suggest that H(12)-HTX binds to closed and open ionic channels, with a preference for the latter conformation. It is also suggested that the conformational changes associated with activation or desensitization of the receptor can be monitored by studying binding of [(3)H]H(12)-HTX to the ionic channel sites as well as by the AcCho-receptor-regulated (22)Na(+) influx.

Purification of Torpedo californica post-synaptic membranes and fractionation of their constituent proteins

A rapid methof for preparation of membrane fractions highly enriched in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo californica electroplax is described. The major step in this purification involves sucrose-density-gradient centrifugation in a reorienting rotor. Further purification of these membranes can be achieved by selective extraction of proteins by use of alkaline pH or by treatment with solutions of lithium di-idosalicylate. The alkali-treated membranes retain functional characteristics of the untreated membranes and in addition contain essentially only the four polypeptides (mol.wts. 40000, 50000, 60000 and 65000) characteristic of the receptor purified by affinity chromatography. Dissolution of the purified membranes or of the alkali-treated purified membranes in sodium cholate solution followed by sucrose-density-gradient centrifugation in the same detergent solution yields solubilized receptor preparations comparable with the most highly purified protein obtained by affinity-chromatographic procedures.

Monoclonal antibodies used to probe acetylcholine receptor structure: localization of the main immunogenic region and detection of similarities between subunits

Seventeen cell lines producing monoclonal antibodies against Torpedo californica (torpedo) acetylcholine receptor (AcChoR) and its subunits were established. By using these antibodies as probes, we identified: (i) a similar antigenic determinant on alpha and beta torpedo subunits, (ii) a similar antigenic determinant on gamma and delta subunits, (iii) antigenic determinants unique for alpha or beta torpedo AcChoR subunits, (iv) a small region on the alpha subunit that dominates the immunogenicity of native torpedo AcChoR in rats (a monoclonal antibody directed at this region could bind to rat AcChoR in vivo and cause passive experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis), and (v) antigenic determinants on torpedo subunits recognized in AcChoR from other species. The unexpected similarities between alpha and beta and between gamma and delta subunits raise the possibility that the complex four-subunit structure of AcChoR was derived from a simpler precursor and suggests that these antigenic similarities might reflect some structural and functional homologies.

Substance P enhances cholinergic receptor desensitization in a clonal nerve cell line

Substance P inhibits carbamylcholine-induced 22Na+ uptake in the clonal cell line PC12. This inhibition is noncompetitive with agonist but competitive with Na+. Octahydrohistrionicotoxin (H8-HTX) also exhibits this same pattern of inhibition. Moreover, both substance P and H8-HTX are very effective in enhancing agonist-induced receptor desensitization. Local anesthetics, such as QX222, also cause inhibition that is competitive with Na+, but they have only marginal effects on desensitization. Because substance P and H8-HTX cannot by themselves cause desensitization, their action is dependent on and synergistic with the action of agonist. Furthermore, substance P and H8-HTX do not appear to compete for the same site as QX222, which is thought to bind to the ion channel. Finally, substance P can stabilize the desensitized state of the receptor even when added subsequent to the actual desensitization and removal of agonist. Thus, substance P does not require open ion channels for binding and may modulate the activity of the receptor-ionophore complex by binding to a distinct regulatory site.

Differential effect of perhydrohistrionicotoxin on 'intrinsic' and 'extrinsic' end-plate responses

1. At rat and frog neuromuscular junctions, perhydrohistrionicotoxin (H12-HTX), at concentrations below 10(-6) M, blocked end-plate currents and potentials generated by ionophoretic application of ACh (extrinsic responses) more effectively than end-plate currents and potentials generated by neurotransmitter secreted from the motor nerve (intrinsic responses). 2. In contrast, (+)-tubocurarine affected both extrinsic and intrinsic responses in a parallel manner. 3. There was no change in the time course and little or no change in the amplitude of intrinsic end-plate currents when extrinsic currents were depressed by H12-HTX nor was there any change in the conductance or lifetime of channels activated by applied ACh. 4. The depressant effect of H12-HTX on extrinsic responses persisted both when carbachol was used as the agonist and when acetylcholinesterase was inhibited with diisopropylfluorophosphate. 5. Large end-plate currents elicited by nerve stimulation that presumably activate the whole end-plate area were not depressed by H12-HTX to the same degree as extrinsic end-plate currents generated by ionophoresis of ACh at the same end-plate. 6. Brief (50 microsec) pulses of ACh produced brief end-plate potentials which were depressed by concentrations of H12-HTX that had little or no effect on miniature end-plate potentials. 7. Extrinsic responses to ACh at extrajunctional regions of denervated fibres were also depressed by low concentrations of H12-HTX. 8. It was concluded that the differential effects of H12-HTX on intrinsic and extrinsic end-plate responses could be due to the existence of two populations of receptor-channel complexes or to protection of local receptor-channel complexes from the toxin by a substance secreted from motor nerve terminals.

Demonstration of the transmembrane nature of the acetylcholine receptor by labeling with anti-receptor antibodies

Antibodies raised in rabbits to Triton-solubilized, purified acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo californica were used to immunospecifically label intact T. californica electroplaque membrane vesicles attached to cover slips and oriented with the extracellular face of the synaptic membrane facing outward. Hemocyanin conjugated to Protein A was then used as a marker, making the antibody binding visible at the electron microscope level. Parallel labeling experiments were performed on vesicles attached to cover slips and sheared by sonication, leaving their cytoplasmic faces fully exposed to the labeling solution. While differences in antibody populations among different rabbits were observed, antigenic determinants of the receptor were present on both faces of the membrane, with those on the extracellular side more numerous than those on the cytoplasmic side, demonstrating the transmembrane nature of the receptor molecule.

Specific binding of perhydrohistrionicotoxin to Torpedo acetylcholine receptor

Torpedo californica postsynaptic membrane fragments were treated with base, which resulted in membranes that were depleted of many nonacetylcholine receptor polypeptides and contained acetylcholine receptor subunits of Mr 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and 65,000 (Raftery, M.A., Vandlen, R.L., Reed, K.L. & Lee T. (1975) Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 40, 193-202). A 43,000-Mr polypeptide and some other components were quantitatively extracted. Base-treated membranes retained the capacity to bind [3H]perhydrohistrionicotoxin and the local anesthetics dibucaine and tetracaine. The regulation of this binding by carbamylcholine, as well as the kinetic mechanism of perhydrohistrionicotoxin binding, was unchanged. [3H]Perhydrohistrionicotoxin binding activity was largely reconstituted from 2% sodium cholate extracts of base-treated membranes. Therefore, the perhydrostrionicotoxin binding site appears to be located on one or more of the acetylcholine receptor polypeptides, and the reconstitution of that binding site from detergent extracts does not require the presence of a 43,000-Mr polypeptide.

Fast kinetic studies on the allosteric interactions between acetylcholine receptor and local anesthetic binding sites

Preincubation of receptor-rich membrane fragments from Torpedo marmorata with tertiary amine local anesthetics and several toxins such as histrionicotoxin, crotoxin and cerulotoxin, modifies the amplitude and time course of the relaxation processes monitored upon rapid mixing of the membrane fragments with the fluorescent agonist, Dns-C6-Cho. In particular, the amplitude of the rapid relaxation process, which is proportional to the fraction of acetylcholine receptor sites in a high-affinity state, increases; accordingly, the rate constant of the 'slow' and 'intermediate' relaxation processes also increases up to ten times (except with histrionicotoxin) whereas in a higher range of local anesthetic concentrations the rate constant of the 'rapid' relaxation process decreases. The data are accounted for by a two-state model of the acetylcholine regulator, assuming distinct binding sites for cholinergic agonists and local anesthetics and allosteric interactions between these two classes of sites; local anesthetics stabilize the regulator in a high-affinity state for agonists even in the absence of agonist, and modify the rate constants for th interconversions between the low-affinity and high-affinity states. The model accounts for the 'slow' fluorescence increase monitored upon addition of local anesthetics to a suspension of receptor-rich membranes supplemented with trace amounts of Dns-C6-Cho. The effect of local anesthetics on the apparent rate constant of the 'rapid' relaxation process can be accounted for on the basis of an additional low-affinity binding of local anesthetics to the acetylcholine receptor site. Finally the increase of the apparent rate constant of the 'intermediate' relaxation process can be simply accounted for by assuming the existence of a third state, corresponding to the 'active' state, to which local anesthetics bind and block ionic transport.