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Villares M, Lourenço N, Ktorza I, Berthelet J, Panagiotou A, Richard A, Amo A, Koziy Y, Medjkane S, Valente S, Fioravanti R, Pioche-Durieu C, Lignière L, Chevreux G, Mai A, Weitzman JB. Theileria parasites sequester host eIF5A to escape elimination by host-mediated autophagy. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2235. [PMID: 38472173 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45022-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Intracellular pathogens develop elaborate mechanisms to survive within the hostile environments of host cells. Theileria parasites infect bovine leukocytes and cause devastating diseases in cattle in developing countries. Theileria spp. have evolved sophisticated strategies to hijack host leukocytes, inducing proliferative and invasive phenotypes characteristic of cell transformation. Intracellular Theileria parasites secrete proteins into the host cell and recruit host proteins to induce oncogenic signaling for parasite survival. It is unknown how Theileria parasites evade host cell defense mechanisms, such as autophagy, to survive within host cells. Here, we show that Theileria annulata parasites sequester the host eIF5A protein to their surface to escape elimination by autophagic processes. We identified a small-molecule compound that reduces parasite load by inducing autophagic flux in host leukocytes, thereby uncoupling Theileria parasite survival from host cell survival. We took a chemical genetics approach to show that this compound induced host autophagy mechanisms and the formation of autophagic structures via AMPK activation and the release of the host protein eIF5A which is sequestered at the parasite surface. The sequestration of host eIF5A to the parasite surface offers a strategy to escape elimination by autophagic mechanisms. These results show how intracellular pathogens can avoid host defense mechanisms and identify a new anti-Theileria drug that induces autophagy to target parasite removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Villares
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Nelly Lourenço
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Ivan Ktorza
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Jérémy Berthelet
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Aristeidis Panagiotou
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Aurélie Richard
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Angélique Amo
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Yulianna Koziy
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Souhila Medjkane
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Sergio Valente
- Department of Drug Chemistry & Technologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, 00185, Italy
| | - Rossella Fioravanti
- Department of Drug Chemistry & Technologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, 00185, Italy
| | | | - Laurent Lignière
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR 7592 Institut Jacques Monod, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Guillaume Chevreux
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR 7592 Institut Jacques Monod, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Antonello Mai
- Department of Drug Chemistry & Technologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, 00185, Italy
- Pasteur Institute, Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, 00185, Italy
| | - Jonathan B Weitzman
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR7126 Epigenetics and Cell Fate, Paris, 75013, France.
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Su R, Yang Y. Gut commensal bacteria exacerbate toxoplasmosis associated with TgSheepCHn5 (ToxoDB#2) and TgRedpandaCHn1 (ToxoDB#20) through Th1 immune response. Parasitol Res 2023; 122:2795-2806. [PMID: 37782335 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-07962-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Oral infection of mice with several strains of Toxoplasma gondii results in intestinal pathological lesions, which contributes to the invasion of this parasite. However, the exact mechanism is unclear, and only a few strains have been explored. Here, T. gondii TgSheepCHn5 and TgRedpandaCHn1 strains from sheep and red panda were evaluated. The TgSheepCHn5 and TgRedpandaCHn1 strains induced intestinal lesions, loss of Paneth cells, and gut commensal bacteria dysbiosis in Swiss Webster mice. The lesions and loss of Paneth cells were dependent on IFN-γ and gut commensal bacteria during T. gondii infection. Deleting IFN-γ or gut commensal bacteria suppressed the Th1 immune response, alleviated the lesions and parasite loading, and upregulated the number of Paneth cells. Loss of IFN-γ production accelerated mice death, whereas the deletion of gut commensal bacteria enhanced the survival time of the host. The Th1 cell immune responses have positive and negative effects on toxoplasmosis, resistance to T. gondii infection, and acceleration intestine lesions. Adjustment of Th1 cell responses and gut commensal bacteria may be effective treatments for toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruijing Su
- Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Yurong Yang
- Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
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3
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Lockyer EJ, Torelli F, Butterworth S, Song OR, Howell S, Weston A, East P, Treeck M. A heterotrimeric complex of Toxoplasma proteins promotes parasite survival in interferon gamma-stimulated human cells. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3002202. [PMID: 37459303 PMCID: PMC10373997 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii secretes protein effectors to subvert the human immune system sufficiently to establish a chronic infection. Relative to murine infections, little is known about which parasite effectors disarm human immune responses. Here, we used targeted CRISPR screening to identify secreted protein effectors required for parasite survival in IFNγ-activated human cells. Independent screens were carried out using 2 Toxoplasma strains that differ in virulence in mice, leading to the identification of effectors required for survival in IFNγ-activated human cells. We identify the secreted protein GRA57 and 2 other proteins, GRA70 and GRA71, that together form a complex which enhances the ability of parasites to persist in IFNγ-activated human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs). Components of the protein machinery required for export of Toxoplasma proteins into the host cell were also found to be important for parasite resistance to IFNγ in human cells, but these export components function independently of the identified protein complex. Host-mediated ubiquitination of the parasite vacuole has previously been associated with increased parasite clearance from human cells, but we find that vacuoles from GRA57, GRA70, and GRA71 knockout strains are surprisingly less ubiquitinated by the host cell. We hypothesise that this is likely a secondary consequence of deletion of the complex, unlinked to the IFNγ resistance mediated by these effectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloise J Lockyer
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Torelli
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Butterworth
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ok-Ryul Song
- High-Throughput Screening Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Steven Howell
- Proteomics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Weston
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Philip East
- Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Moritz Treeck
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology of Host-Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
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4
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Lu YN, Shen XY, Lu JM, Jin GN, Lan HW, Xu X, Piao LX. Resveratrol inhibits Toxoplasma gondii-induced lung injury, inflammatory cascade and evidences of its mechanism of action. Phytomedicine 2023; 108:154522. [PMID: 36332392 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic protozoan that can infect host to cause toxoplasmosis. We have previously reported that resveratrol (RSV) has protective effects against liver damage in T. gondii infected mice. However, the effect of RSV on lung injury caused by T. gondii infection and its mechanism of action remain unclear. PURPOSE In this work, we studied the protective effects of RSV on lung injury caused by T. gondii infection and explored the underlying mechanism. METHODS Molecular docking and localized surface plasmon resonance assay were used to detect the molecular interactions between RSV and target proteins. In vitro, the anti-T. gondii effects and potential anti-inflammatory mechanisms of RSV were investigated by quantitative competitive-PCR, RT-PCR, ELISA, Western blotting and immunofluorescence using RAW 264.7 cells infected with tachyzoites of T. gondii RH strain. In vivo, the effects of RSV on lung injury caused by T. gondii infection were assessed by observing pathological changes and the expression of inflammatory factors of lung. RESULTS RSV inhibited T. gondii loads and T. gondii-derived heat shock protein 70 (T.g.HSP70) expression in RAW 264.7 cells and lung tissues. Moreover, RSV interacts with T.g.HSP70 and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), respectively, and interferes with the interaction between T.g.HSP70 and TLR4. It also inhibited the overproduction of inducible nitric oxide synthase, TNF-α and high mobility group protein 1 (HMGB1) by down-regulating TLR4/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, which is consistent with the effect of TLR4 inhibitor CLI-095. In vivo, RSV improved the pathological lung damage produced by T. gondii infection, as well as decreased the number of inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and the release of HMGB1 and TNF-α. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that RSV can inhibit the proliferation of T. gondii and T.g.HSP70 expression both in vitro and in vivo. RSV can inhibit excessive inflammatory response by intervening T.g.HSP70 and HMGB1 mediated TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway activation, thereby ameliorating lung injury caused by T. gondii infection. The present study provides new data that may be useful for the development of RSV as a new agent for the treatment of lung damage caused by T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Nan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China
| | - Xin Yu Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China
| | - Jing Mei Lu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China
| | - Guang Nan Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China
| | - Hui Wen Lan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China
| | - Xiang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China.
| | - Lian Xun Piao
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, PR. China.
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Cheng A, Zhang H, Chen B, Zheng S, Wang H, Shi Y, You S, Li M, Jiang L. Modulation of autophagy as a therapeutic strategy for Toxoplasma gondii infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:902428. [PMID: 36093185 PMCID: PMC9448867 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.902428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection is a severe health threat that endangers billions of people worldwide. T. gondii utilizes the host cell membrane to form a parasitophorous vacuole (PV), thereby fully isolating itself from the host cell cytoplasm and making intracellular clearance difficult. PV can be targeted and destroyed by autophagy. Autophagic targeting results in T. gondii killing via the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes. However, T. gondii has developed many strategies to suppress autophagic targeting. Accordingly, the interplay between host cell autophagy and T. gondii is an emerging area with important practical implications. By promoting the canonical autophagy pathway or attenuating the suppression of autophagic targeting, autophagy can be effectively utilized in the development of novel therapeutic strategies against T gondii. Here, we have illustrated the complex interplay between host cell mediated autophagy and T. gondii. Different strategies to promote autophagy in order to target the parasite have been elucidated. Besides, we have analyzed some potential new drug molecules from the DrugBank database using bioinformatics tools, which can modulate autophagy. Various challenges and opportunities focusing autophagy mediated T. gondii clearance have been discussed, which will provide new insights for the development of novel drugs against the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ao Cheng
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Huanan Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Baike Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Shengyao Zheng
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Hongyi Wang
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yijia Shi
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Siyao You
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Immunology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Liping Jiang, ; Ming Li,
| | - Liping Jiang
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
- China-Africa Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Liping Jiang, ; Ming Li,
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6
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Liu B, Yan Y, Wang X, Chen N, Wu J. Locally generated C3 regulates the clearance of Toxoplasma gondii by IFN-γ-primed macrophage through regulation of xenophagy. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:944006. [PMID: 35992649 PMCID: PMC9386420 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.944006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exogenous pathogen infection can induce autophagy in cells. Autophagy is essential for cell survival, development, and homeostasis. It not only regulates cell defense and stress, but also has a close relationship with innate and adaptive immunity. Complement is an important part of innate immunity, which could be activated by three approaches, including classic, alternative, and lectin pathways. All the three pathways result in the activation of C3, and generate anaphylatoxin fragments C3a and C5a, and formation of the membrane attack complex. Either C3a or C5a induces the inflammatory cytokines through binding to C3aR or C5aR, respectively. However, it is still unknown whether the complement could regulate the autophagy of intracellular microorganisms or not. In this study, we constructed a Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) and macrophages co-culture experimental model using T. gondii expressing enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) fluorescence and C3−/-C57BL/6 J mice for that T. gondii invaded peritoneal macrophages in mice. Western blot, laser confocal microscopy (LCM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to observe the changes of autophagy between the macrophages from wild-type (WT) and C3−/− mice. Flow cytometry and LCM were used to investigate the effect of autophagy on the killing ability of macrophages against T. gondii. Here, we found that local C3 could suppress not only the canonical autophagy of macrophage, but also the xenophagy to T. gondii. Interestingly, the inhibition of C3 on host cell autophagy could significantly suppress the clearance of T. gondii by the IFN-γ-primed macrophage. Finally, we investigated the mechanism of the autophagy regulation of C3 that the effect of C3 on the macrophage-specific autophagy against T. gondii depends on mTOR. And, there is C3a but not C5a/C5aR involved in regulating macrophage xenophagy against T. gondii. Collectively, our findings suggest locally generated C3 regulates the clearance of T. gondii by Macrophage through the regulation of the non-canonical IFN-γ-dependent autophagy pathway, and paint a clearer picture in the regulation of autophagy by innate immune components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Liu
- Department of Hematology. The No. 967 Hospital of PLA Joint Logistics Support Force, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Yan Yan
- Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoreng Wang
- Laboratory of Radiation Injury Treatment, Medical Innovation Research Division, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Nannan Chen
- Department of Hematology. The No. 967 Hospital of PLA Joint Logistics Support Force, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- Nannan Chen,
| | - Jue Wu
- Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Jue Wu,
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Abstract
Like many intracellular pathogens, the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to promote its transmission and persistence in a variety of hosts by injecting effector proteins that manipulate many processes in the cells it invades. Specifically, the parasite diverts host epigenetic modulators and modifiers from their native functions to rewire host gene expression to counteract the innate immune response and to limit its strength. The arms race between the parasite and its hosts has led to accelerated adaptive evolution of effector proteins and the unconventional secretion routes they use. This review provides an up-to-date overview of how T. gondii effectors, through the evolution of intrinsically disordered domains, the formation of supramolecular complexes, and the use of molecular mimicry, target host transcription factors that act as coordinating nodes, as well as chromatin-modifying enzymes, to control the fate of infected cells and ultimately the outcome of infection. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology, Volume 76 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed-Ali Hakimi
- Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Infection, Institute for Advanced Biosciences (IAB), INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble, France;
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Rashidi S, Vieira C, Mansouri R, Ali-Hassanzadeh M, Ghani E, Karimazar M, Nguewa P, Manzano-Román R. Host cell proteins modulated upon Toxoplasma infection identified using proteomic approaches: a molecular rationale. Parasitol Res 2022. [PMID: 35552534 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-022-07541-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a pathogenic protozoan parasite belonging to the apicomplexan phylum that infects the nucleated cells of warm-blooded hosts leading to an infectious disease known as toxoplasmosis. Apicomplexan parasites such as T. gondii can display different mechanisms to control or manipulate host cells signaling at different levels altering the host subcellular genome and proteome. Indeed, Toxoplasma is able to modulate host cell responses (especially immune responses) during infection to its advantage through both structural and functional changes in the proteome of different infected cells. Consequently, parasites can transform the invaded cells into a suitable environment for its own replication and the induction of infection. Proteomics as an applicable tool can identify such critical proteins involved in pathogen (Toxoplasma)-host cell interactions and consequently clarify the cellular mechanisms that facilitate the entry of pathogens into host cells, and their replication and transmission, as well as the central mechanisms of host defense against pathogens. Accordingly, the current paper reviews several proteins (identified using proteomic approaches) differentially expressed in the proteome of Toxoplasma-infected host cells (macrophages and human foreskin fibroblasts) and tissues (brain and liver) and highlights their plausible functions in the cellular biology of the infected cells. The identification of such modulated proteins and their related cell impact (cell responses/signaling) can provide further information regarding parasite pathogenesis and biology that might lead to a better understanding of therapeutic strategies and novel drug targets.
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Hou Z, Wang L, Su D, Cai W, Zhu Y, Liu D, Huang S, Xu J, Pan Z, Tao J. Global MicroRNAs Expression Profile Analysis Reveals Possible Regulatory Mechanisms of Brain Injury Induced by Toxoplasma gondii Infection. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:827570. [PMID: 35360170 PMCID: PMC8961362 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.827570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan that can cause toxoplasmosis in humans and other endotherms. T. gondii can manipulate the host gene expression profile by interfering with miRNA expression, which is closely associated with the molecular mechanisms of T. gondii-induced brain injury. However, it is unclear how T. gondii manipulates the gene expression of central nervous system (CNS) cells through modulation of miRNA expression in vivo during acute and chronic infection. Therefore, high-throughput sequencing was used to investigate expression profiles of brain miRNAs at 10, 25, and 50 days post-infection (DPI) in pigs infected with the Chinese I genotype T. gondii strain in this study. Compared with the control group 87, 68, and 135 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were identified in the infected porcine brains at 10, 25, and 50 DPI, respectively. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis showed that a large number significantly enriched GO terms and KEGG pathways were found, and were mostly associated with stimulus or immune response, signal transduction, cell death or apoptosis, metabolic processes, immune system or diseases, and cancers. miRNA–gene network analysis revealed that the crucial connecting nodes, including DEMs and their target genes, might have key roles in the interactions between porcine brain and T. gondii. These results suggest that the regulatory strategies of T. gondii are involved in the modulation of a variety of host cell signaling pathways and cellular processes, containing unfolded protein response (UPR), oxidative stress (OS), autophagy, apoptosis, tumorigenesis, and inflammatory responses, by interfering with the global miRNA expression profile of CNS cells, allowing parasites to persist in the host CNS cells and contribute to pathological damage of porcine brain. To our knowledge, this is the first report on miRNA expression profile in porcine brains during acute and chronic T. gondii infection in vivo. Our results provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying T. gondii-induced brain injury during different infection stages and novel targets for developing therapeutic agents against T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaofeng Hou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Lele Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Dingzeyang Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Weimin Cai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yu Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Dandan Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Siyang Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jinjun Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Zhiming Pan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jianping Tao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jianping Tao,
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Grijmans BJM, van der Kooij SB, Varela M, Meijer AH. LAPped in Proof: LC3-Associated Phagocytosis and the Arms Race Against Bacterial Pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:809121. [PMID: 35047422 PMCID: PMC8762105 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.809121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells of the innate immune system continuously patrol the extracellular environment for potential microbial threats that are to be neutralized by phagocytosis and delivery to lysosomes. In addition, phagocytes employ autophagy as an innate immune mechanism against pathogens that succeed to escape the phagolysosomal pathway and invade the cytosol. In recent years, LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) has emerged as an intermediate between phagocytosis and autophagy. During LAP, phagocytes target extracellular microbes while using parts of the autophagic machinery to label the cargo-containing phagosomes for lysosomal degradation. LAP contributes greatly to host immunity against a multitude of bacterial pathogens. In the pursuit of survival, bacteria have developed elaborate strategies to disarm or circumvent the LAP process. In this review, we will outline the nature of the LAP mechanism and discuss recent insights into its interplay with bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Monica Varela
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
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11
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protist infecting a wide group of warm-blooded animals, ranging from birds to humans. While this infection is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals, it can also lead to severe ocular or neurological outcomes in immunocompromised individuals or in developing fetuses. This obligate intracellular parasite has the ability to infect a considerable range of nucleated cells and can propagate in the intermediate host. Yet, under the pressure of the immune system it transforms into an encysted persistent form residing primarily in the brain and muscle tissues. Encysted parasites, which are resistant to current medication, may reactivate and give rise to an acute infection. The clinical outcome of toxoplasmosis depends on a complex balance between the host immune response and parasite virulence factors. Susceptibility to the disease is thus determined by both parasite strains and host species. Recent advances on our understanding of host cell-parasite interactions and parasite virulence have brought new insights into the pathophysiology of T. gondii infection and are summarized here.
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12
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Leleu I, Genete D, Desnoulez SS, Saidi N, Brodin P, Lafont F, Tomavo S, Pied S. A noncanonical autophagy is involved in the transfer of Plasmodium-microvesicles to astrocytes. Autophagy 2021; 18:1583-1598. [PMID: 34747313 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2021.1993704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral malaria is a neuroinflammatory disease induced by P. falciparum infection. In animal models, the neuro-pathophysiology of cerebral malaria results from the sequestration of infected red blood cells (iRBCs) in microvessels that promotes the activation of glial cells in the brain. This activation provokes an exacerbated inflammatory response characterized by the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, leading to brain infiltration by pathogenic CD8+ T lymphocytes. Astrocytes are a major subtype of brain glial cells that play an important role in maintaining the homeostasis of the central nervous system, the integrity of the brain-blood barrier and in mounting local innate immune responses. We have previously shown that parasitic microvesicles (PbA-MVs) are transferred from iRBCs to astrocytes. The present study shows that an unconventional LC3-mediated autophagy pathway independent of ULK1 is involved in the transfer and degradation of PbA-MVs inside the astrocytes. We further demonstrate that inhibition of the autophagy process by treatment with 3-methyladenine blocks the transfer of PbA-MVs, which remain localized in the astrocytic cell membrane and are not internalized. Moreover, bafilomycin A1, another drug against autophagy promotes the accumulation of PbA-MVs inside the astrocytes by inhibiting the fusion with lysosomes, and prevents ECM in mice infected with PbA. Finally, we establish that RUBCN/rubicon or ATG5 silencing impede astrocyte production in CCL2 and CXCL10 chemokines induced by PbA stimulation. Altogether, our data suggest that a non-canonical autophagy-lysosomal pathway may play a key role in cerebral malaria through regulation of brain neuro-inflammation by astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inès Leleu
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-CIIL, Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Lille, France
| | - Delphine Genete
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-CIIL, Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Lille, France
| | | | - Nasreddine Saidi
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-CIIL, Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Lille, France
| | - Priscille Brodin
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-CIIL, Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Lille, France
| | - Frank Lafont
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-CIIL, Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Lille, France.,Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Cnrs, Inserm, Chu Lille, Lille, France
| | - Stanislas Tomavo
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Sylviane Pied
- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-CIIL, Institut Pasteur De Lille, Univ. Lille, Lille, France
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Frickel EM, Hunter CA. Lessons from Toxoplasma: Host responses that mediate parasite control and the microbial effectors that subvert them. J Exp Med 2021; 218:212714. [PMID: 34670268 PMCID: PMC8532566 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20201314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii has long provided a tractable experimental system to investigate how the immune system deals with intracellular infections. This review highlights the advances in defining how this organism was first detected and the studies with T. gondii that contribute to our understanding of how the cytokine IFN-γ promotes control of vacuolar pathogens. In addition, the genetic tractability of this eukaryote organism has provided the foundation for studies into the diverse strategies that pathogens use to evade antimicrobial responses and now provides the opportunity to study the basis for latency. Thus, T. gondii remains a clinically relevant organism whose evolving interactions with the host immune system continue to teach lessons broadly relevant to host–pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Frickel
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
| | - Christopher A Hunter
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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14
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Nemati S, Pazoki H, Mohammad Rahimi H, Asadzadeh Aghdaei H, Shahrokh S, Baghaei K, Mirjalali H, Zali MR. Toxoplasma gondii profilin and tachyzoites RH strain may manipulate autophagy via downregulating Atg5 and Atg12 and upregulating Atg7. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:7041-7047. [PMID: 34453672 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06667-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autophagy process is an important defense mechanism against intracellular infection. This process plays a critical role in limiting the development of Toxoplasma gondii. This study aimed to investigate the effects of T. gondii profilin and tachyzoites on the expression of autophagy genes. METHODS AND RESULTS PMA-activated THP-1 cell line was incubated with T. gondii profilin and tachyzoites for 6 h. After RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis, the expression of Atg5, Atg7, Atg12, and LC3b was evaluated using real-time PCR. The results revealed statistically significant downregulation of Atg5 for 1.43 (P-value = 0.0062) and 4.15 (P-value = 0.0178) folds after treatment with T. gondii profilin and tachyzoites, respectively. Similar to Atg 5, Atg 12 revealed a statistically significant downregulation for profilin (1.41 fold; P-value = 0.0047) and T. gondii tachyzoites (3.25 fold; P-value = 0.011). The expression of Atg7 elevated in both T. gondii profilin (2.083 fold; P-value = 0.0087) and tachyzoites (1.64 fold; P-value = 0.206). T. gondii profilin and tachyzoites downregulated (1.04 fold; P-value = 0.0028) and upregulated (twofold; P-value = 0.091) the expression of LC3b, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that T. gondii and profilin may manipulate autophagy via preventing from the formation of Atg5-12-16L complex to facilitate replication of T. gondii and development of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Nemati
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Pazoki
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hanieh Mohammad Rahimi
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamid Asadzadeh Aghdaei
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shabnam Shahrokh
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kaveh Baghaei
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamed Mirjalali
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Reza Zali
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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15
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Subauste CS. Recent Advances in the Roles of Autophagy and Autophagy Proteins in Host Cells During Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Potential Therapeutic Implications. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:673813. [PMID: 34179003 PMCID: PMC8220159 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.673813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan that can cause encephalitis and retinitis in humans. The success of T. gondii as a pathogen depends in part on its ability to form an intracellular niche (parasitophorous vacuole) that allows protection from lysosomal degradation and parasite replication. The parasitophorous vacuole can be targeted by autophagy or by autophagosome-independent processes triggered by autophagy proteins. However, T. gondii has developed many strategies to preserve the integrity of the parasitophorous vacuole. Here, we review the interaction between T. gondii, autophagy, and autophagy proteins and expand on recent advances in the field, including the importance of autophagy in the regulation of invasion of the brain and retina by the parasite. We discuss studies that have begun to explore the potential therapeutic applications of the knowledge gained thus far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos S Subauste
- Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
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16
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Damasceno-Sá JC, de Souza FS, Dos Santos TAT, de Oliveira FC, da Silva MDFS, Dias RRF, de Souza W, Arnholdt ACV, Seabra SH, DaMatta RA. Inhibition of nitric oxide production of activated mice peritoneal macrophages is independent of the Toxoplasma gondii strain. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2021; 116:e200417. [PMID: 33729328 PMCID: PMC7949196 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760200417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis and is controlled by activated macrophages. However, infection of macrophages by tachyzoites induces TGF-β signaling (TGF-s) inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production. NO inhibition may be a general escape mechanism of distinct T. gondii strains. OBJECTIVES To evaluate in activated macrophages the capacity of T. gondii strains of different virulence and genetics (RH, type I; ME-49, type II; VEG, type III; P-Br, recombinant) to evade the NO microbicidal defense system and determine LC3 loading to the parasitophorous vacuole. METHODS Activated peritoneal macrophages were infected with the different T. gondii strains, NO-production was evaluated by the Griess reagent, and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, TGF-s, and LC3 localisation assayed by immunofluorescence. FINDINGS Only RH persisted in macrophages, while VEG was more resistant than P-Br and ME-49. All strains induced TGF-s, degradation of inducible nitric oxide synthase, and NO-production inhibition from 2 to 24 h of infection, but only RH sustained these alterations for 48 h. By 24 h of infection, TGF-s lowered in macrophages infected by ME-49, and P-Br, and NO-production recovered, while VEG sustained TGF-s and NO-production inhibition longer. LC3 loading to parasitophorous vacuole was strain-dependent: higher for ME-49, P-Br and VEG, lower for RH. All strains inhibited NO-production, but only RH sustained this effect probably because it persisted in macrophages due to additional evasive mechanisms as lower LC3 loading to parasitophorous vacuole. MAIN CONCLUSIONS These results support that T. gondii can escape the NO microbicidal defense system at the initial phase of the infection, but only the virulent strain sustain this evasion mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Cláudio Damasceno-Sá
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
| | - Fernanda Silva de Souza
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
| | - Thiago Alves Teixeira Dos Santos
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil.,Centro Universitário Estadual da Zona Oeste, Colegiado de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Laboratório de Tecnologia em Bioquímica e Microscopia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Fábio Conceição de Oliveira
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
| | - Maria de Fátima Sarro da Silva
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
| | - Raul Ramos Furtado Dias
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Andrea Cristina Veto Arnholdt
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia do Reconhecer, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
| | - Sergio Henrique Seabra
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil.,Centro Universitário Estadual da Zona Oeste, Colegiado de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Laboratório de Tecnologia em Bioquímica e Microscopia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Renato Augusto DaMatta
- Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brasil
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17
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Abstract
Following phagocytosis, the nascent phagosome undergoes maturation to become a phagolysosome with an acidic, hydrolytic, and often oxidative lumen that can efficiently kill and digest engulfed microbes, cells, and debris. The fusion of phagosomes with lysosomes is a principal driver of phagosomal maturation and is targeted by several adapted intracellular pathogens. Impairment of this process has significant consequences for microbial infection, tissue inflammation, the onset of adaptive immunity, and disease. Given the importance of phagosome-lysosome fusion to phagocyte function and the many virulence factors that target it, it is unsurprising that multiple molecular pathways have evolved to mediate this essential process. While the full range of these pathways has yet to be fully characterized, several pathways involving proteins such as members of the Rab GTPases, tethering factors and SNAREs have been identified. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge to clarify the ambiguities in the field and construct a more comprehensive phagolysosome formation model. Lastly, we discuss how other cellular pathways help support phagolysosome biogenesis and, consequently, phagocyte function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny A Nguyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Robin M Yates
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Cumming School of Medicine, Snyder Institute of Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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18
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Hu X, Liu X, Bai X, Yang L, Ding J, Jin X, Li C, Zhang Y, Li Y, Yang Y, Liu M. Effects of Trichinella spiralis and its excretory/secretory products on autophagy of host muscle cells in vivo and in vitro. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009040. [PMID: 33600403 PMCID: PMC7891764 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) is a widely distributed pathogenic microorganism that causes trichinellosis, a disease that has the potential of causing severe harm to their host. Numerous studies have demonstrated that autophagy can be triggered by microbial infection, such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasitic helminths. However, it’s still unknown whether autophagy can facilitate host resistance to T. spiralis infection. The present study examined the role of autophagy in striated muscle cell transformation following infection with T. spiralis in BALB/c mice. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to detect the production of the host diaphragm autophagosome after T. spiralis infection, and changes in the protein and transcriptional levels of autophagic marker proteins were also detected. The significance of autophagy in T. spiralis infection, namely inhibition of T. spiralis growth, was preliminarily evaluated by conducting in vivo experiments using autophagy inhibitors. Besides, we studied the effect of excretory-secretory products (ES) of T. spiralis on autophagy of C2C12 myoblasts. The changes in protein and gene expression levels in autophagy-related pathways in vitro and in vivo were measured as further evidence. The results showed that T. spiralis infection induced autophagy in the host muscle cells. Meanwhile, ES inhibited autophagy of myoblasts in vitro, but this did not affect the cell viability. The upregulation and downregulation of autophagy-related factors in skeletal muscle cells may indicate an adaptive mechanism providing a comfortable niche for the parasite. Autophagy, a intracellular degradation system, is a kind of unique phenomenon in eukaryotic cells. The commonly referred autophagy is the process of forming autophagosomes by wrapping the cytoplasmic components with double-membrane structure, and then fusing with lysosomes to degrade the internal substances of the cell. Autophagy can be induced by various pathogens including parasites. When the body is infected with intracellular parasites, the host cell can remove the parasites by autophagy. However, parasites have also evolved defence mechanisms that use autophagy in host cells to promote growth. These can be seen in some intracellular parasitic infections such as Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium. Although the role of autophagy in other parasitic infections has been revealed, it remains unclear whether autophagy is involved in the invasion process by Trichinella. We investigated the role of Trichinella infection on host muscle cells autophagy and the effect of autophagosome formation on the survival of T. spiralis. Understanding the role of autophagy in the interaction between parasitic infection and host cell is of great significance for the prevention and treatment of Trichinella infection and the development of anti-parasite drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiang Hu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaolei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xue Bai
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Li Yang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jing Ding
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xuemin Jin
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Chen Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yulu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanfeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- * E-mail: (YY); (ML)
| | - Mingyuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (YY); (ML)
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19
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Abstract
Infections with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii are frequent, but one of its main consequences, ocular toxoplasmosis (OT), remains poorly understood. While its clinical description has recently attracted more attention and publications, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are only sparsely elucidated, which is partly due to the inherent difficulties to establish relevant animal models. Furthermore, the particularities of the ocular environment explain why the abundant knowledge on systemic toxoplasmosis cannot be just transferred to the ocular situation. However, studies undertaken in mouse models have revealed a central role of interferon gamma (IFNγ) and, more surprisingly, interleukin 17 (IL17), in ocular pathology and parasite control. These studies also show the importance of the genetic background of the infective Toxoplasma strain. Indeed, infections due to exotic strains show a completely different pathophysiology, which translates in a different clinical outcome. These elements should lead to more individualized therapy. Furthermore, the recent advance in understanding the immune response during OT paved the way to new research leads, involving immune pathways poorly studied in this particular setting, such as type I and type III interferons. In any case, deeper knowledge of the mechanisms of this pathology is needed to establish new, more targeted treatment schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Greigert
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, UR 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Faiza Bittich-Fahmi
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, UR 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alexander W. Pfaff
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, UR 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Parasitologie et Mycologie Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- * E-mail:
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20
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Leesombun A, Iijima M, Umeda K, Kondoh D, Pagmadulam B, Abdou AM, Suzuki Y, Ohba SI, Isshiki K, Kimura T, Kubota Y, Sawa R, Nihei CI, Nishikawa Y. Metacytofilin Is a Potent Therapeutic Drug Candidate for Toxoplasmosis. J Infect Dis 2020; 221:766-774. [PMID: 31573038 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasmosis, a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is an important cause of miscarriage or adverse fetal effects, including neurological and ocular manifestations in humans. Current anti-Toxoplasma drugs have limited efficacy against toxoplasmosis and also have severe side effects. Therefore, novel efficacious drugs are urgently needed. Here, we identified metacytofilin (MCF) from a fungal Metarhizium species as a potential anti-Toxoplasma compound. METHODS Anti-Toxoplasma activities of MCF and its derivatives were evaluated in vitro and in vivo using nonpregnant and pregnant mice. To understand the mode of action of MCF, the RNA expression of host and parasite genes was investigated by RNAseq. RESULTS In vitro, MCF inhibited the viability of intracellular and extracellular T. gondii. Administering MCF intraperitoneally or orally to mice after infection with T. gondii tachyzoites increased mouse survival compared with the untreated animals. Remarkably, oral administration of MCF to pregnant mice prevented vertical transmission of the parasite. Interestingly, RNA sequencing of T. gondii-infected cells treated with MCF showed that MCF inhibited DNA replication and enhanced RNA degradation in the parasites. CONCLUSIONS With its potent anti-T. gondii activity, MCF is a strong candidate for future drug development against toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpron Leesombun
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan.,Department of Pre-clinic and Applied Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phutthamonthon Nakhonpathom, Thailand
| | | | - Kousuke Umeda
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kondoh
- Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Baldorj Pagmadulam
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Ahmed M Abdou
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan.,Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena City, Egypt
| | - Yutaka Suzuki
- Graduate School of Frontier Science, University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | | | - Kunio Isshiki
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Yumiko Kubota
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Sawa
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Coh-Ichi Nihei
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Nishikawa
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
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21
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Abstract
Autophagy is an important homeostatic mechanism, in which lysosomes degrade and recycle cytosolic components. As a key defense mechanism against infections, autophagy is involved in the capture and elimination of intracellular parasites. However, intracellular parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, have developed several evasion mechanisms to manipulate the host cell autophagy for their growth and establish a chronic infection. This review provides an insight into the autophagy mechanism used by the host cells in the control of T. gondii and the host exploitation by the parasite. First, we summarize the mechanism of autophagy, xenophagy, and LC3-associated phagocytosis. Then, we illustrate the process of autophagy proteins-mediated T. gondii clearance. Furthermore, we discuss how the parasite blocks and exploits this process for its survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minmin Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of Anhui, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Obed Cudjoe
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of Anhui, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jilong Shen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of Anhui, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of Anhui, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,School of Nursing, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jian Du
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of Anhui, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology of Anhui Province, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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Ghartey-Kwansah G, Adu-Nti F, Aboagye B, Ankobil A, Essuman EE, Opoku YK, Abokyi S, Abu EK, Boampong JN. Autophagy in the control and pathogenesis of parasitic infections. Cell Biosci 2020; 10:101. [PMID: 32944216 PMCID: PMC7487832 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-020-00464-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Autophagy has a crucial role in the defense against parasites. The interplay existing between host autophagy and parasites has varied outcomes due to the kind of host cell and microorganism. The presence of autophagic compartments disrupt a significant number of pathogens and are further cleared by xenophagy in an autolysosome. Another section of pathogens have the capacity to outwit the autophagic pathway to their own advantage. Result To comprehend the interaction between pathogens and the host cells, it is significant to distinguish between starvation-induced autophagy and other autophagic pathways. Subversion of host autophagy by parasites is likely due to differences in cellular pathways from those of ‘classical’ autophagy and that they are controlled by parasites in a peculiar way. In xenophagy clearance at the intracellular level, the pathogens are first ubiquitinated before autophagy receptors acknowledgement, followed by labeling with light chain 3 (LC3) protein. The LC3 in LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) is added directly into vacuole membrane and functions regardless of the ULK, an initiation complex. The activation of the ULK complex composed of ATG13, FIP200 and ATG101causes the initiation of host autophagic response. Again, the recognition of PAMPs by conserved PRRs marks the first line of defense against pathogens, involving Toll-like receptors (TLRs). These all important immune-related receptors have been reported recently to regulate autophagy. Conclusion In this review, we sum up recent advances in autophagy to acknowledge and understand the interplay between host and parasites, focusing on target proteins for the design of therapeutic drugs. The target host proteins on the initiation of the ULK complex and PRRs-mediated recognition of PAMPs may provide strong potential for the design of therapeutic drugs against parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Ghartey-Kwansah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Frank Adu-Nti
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Radford University College, Accra, Ghana
| | - Benjamin Aboagye
- Department of Forensic Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Amandus Ankobil
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, State University of New York at Albany, New York, USA
| | - Edward Eyipe Essuman
- US Food and Drugs Administration CBER, OBRR, DETTD 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, White Oak, USA
| | - Yeboah Kwaku Opoku
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Science, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
| | - Samuel Abokyi
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.,School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Emmanuel Kwasi Abu
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Johnson Nyarko Boampong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
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Zhang Z, Gu H, Li Q, Zheng J, Cao S, Weng C, Jia H. GABARAPL2 Is Critical for Growth Restriction of Toxoplasma gondii in HeLa Cells Treated with Gamma Interferon. Infect Immun 2020; 88:e00054-20. [PMID: 32094251 DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00054-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-induced innate immune responses play important roles in the inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii infection. It has been reported that IFN-γ stimulates non-acidification-dependent growth restriction of T. gondii in HeLa cells, but the mechanism remains unclear. Here, we found that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor-associated protein-like 2 (GABARAPL2) plays a critical role in parasite restriction in IFN-γ-treated HeLa cells. GABARAPL2 is recruited to membrane structures surrounding parasitophorous vacuoles (PV). Autophagy adaptors are required for the proper localization and function of GABARAPL2 in the IFN-γ -induced immune response. These findings provide further understanding of a noncanonical autophagy pathway responsible for IFN-γ-dependent inhibition of T. gondii growth in human HeLa cells and demonstrate the critical role of GABARAPL2 in this response.
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Lee J, Choi JW, Han HY, Kim WS, Song HY, Byun EB, Byun EH, Lee YH, Yuk JM. 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde Restricts the Intracellular Growth of Toxoplasma gondii by Inducing SIRT1-Mediated Autophagy in Macrophages. Korean J Parasitol 2020; 58:7-14. [PMID: 32145722 PMCID: PMC7066436 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2020.58.1.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite that infects approximately one third of the human popu- lation worldwide. Considering the toxicity and side effects of anti-toxoplasma medications, it is important to develop effec- tive drug alternatives with fewer and less severe off-target effects. In this study, we found that 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (4- HBA) induced autophagy and the expression of NAD-dependent protein deacetylase sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) in primary murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Interestingly, treatment of BMDMs with 4-HBA significantly reduced the number of macrophages infected with T. gondii and the proliferation of T. gondii in infected cells. This effect was impaired by pretreating the macrophages with 3-methyladenine or wortmannin (selective autophagy inhibitors) or with sirtinol or EX527 (SIRT1 inhibitors). Moreover, we found that pharmacological inhibition of SIRT1 prevented 4-HBA-mediated expres- sion of LC3-phosphatidylethanolamine conjugate (LC3-II) and the colocalization of T. gondii parasitophorous vacuoles with autophagosomes in BMDMs. These data suggest that 4-HBA promotes antiparasitic host responses by activating SIRT1- mediated autophagy, and 4-HBA might be a promising therapeutic alternative for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jina Lee
- Department of Infection Biology and Medical Science, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea
| | - Jae-Won Choi
- Department of Infection Biology and Medical Science, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea
| | - Hye Young Han
- Department of Infection Biology and Medical Science, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea
| | - Woo Sik Kim
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup 56212, Korea
| | - Ha-Yeon Song
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup 56212, Korea
| | - Eui-Baek Byun
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup 56212, Korea
| | - Eui-Hong Byun
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kongju National University, Yesan 32439, Korea
| | - Young-Ha Lee
- Department of Infection Biology and Medical Science, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea
| | - Jae-Min Yuk
- Department of Infection Biology and Medical Science, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea
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25
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Ghartey-Kwansah G, Aboagye B, Adu-Nti F, Opoku YK, Abu EK. Clearing or subverting the enemy: Role of autophagy in protozoan infections. Life Sci 2020; 247:117453. [PMID: 32088215 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The protozoan parasites are evolutionarily divergent, unicellular eukaryotic pathogens representing one of the essential sources of parasitic diseases. These parasites significantly affect the economy and cause public health burdens globally. Protozoan parasites share many cellular features and pathways with their respective host cells. This includes autophagy, a process responsible for self-degradation of the cell's components. There is conservation of the central structural and functional machinery for autophagy in most of the eukaryotic phyla, however, Plasmodium and Toxoplasma possess a decreased number of recognizable autophagy-related proteins (ATG). Plasmodium noticeably lacks clear orthologs of the initiating kinase ATG1/ULK1/2, and both Plasmodium and Toxoplasma lack proteins involved in the nucleation of autophagosomes. These organisms have essential apicoplast, a plastid-like non-photosynthetic organelle, which is an adaptation that is used in penetrating the host cell. Furthermore, available evidence suggests that Leishmania, an intracellular protozoan parasite, induces autophagy in macrophages. The autophagic pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi is activated during metacyclogenesis, a process responsible for the infective forms of parasites. Therefore, numerous pathogens have developed strategies to impair the autophagic mechanism in phagocytes. Regulating autophagy is essential to maintain cellular health as adjustments in the autophagy pathway have been linked to the progression of several physiological and pathological conditions in humans. In this review, we report current advances in autophagy in parasites and their host cells, focusing on the ramifications of these studies in the design of potential anti-protozoan therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Ghartey-Kwansah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana; College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China.
| | - Benjamin Aboagye
- Department of Forensic Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Frank Adu-Nti
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Yeboah Kwaku Opoku
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Science, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
| | - Emmanuel Kwasi Abu
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
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Abstract
One of the most successful intracellular parasites, Toxoplasma gondii has developed several strategies to avoid destruction by the host. These include approaches such as rapid and efficient cell invasion to avoid phagocytic engulfment, negative regulation of the canonical CD40-CD40L-mediated autophagy pathway, impairment of the noncanonical IFN-γ-dependent autophagy pathway, and modulation of host cell survival and death to obtain lifelong parasite survival. Different virulent strains have even evolved different ways to cope with and evade destruction by the host. This review aims to illustrate every aspect of the game between the host and Toxoplasma during the process of infection. A better understanding of all aspects of the battle between Toxoplasma and its hosts will be useful for the development of better strategies and drugs to control the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanbo Zhu
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Graduate School of Affiliated Anhui Provincial Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jingyang Li
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Clinical Laboratory of the Third People's Hospital of Heifei, Hefei, China
| | - Faustina Pappoe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Jilong Shen
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Li Yu
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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