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Wang J, Yu H. Threose nucleic acid as a primitive genetic polymer and a contemporary molecular tool. Bioorg Chem 2024; 143:107049. [PMID: 38150936 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.107049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acids serve a dual role as both genetic materials in living organisms and versatile molecular tools for various applications. Threose nuclei acid (TNA) stands out as a synthetic genetic polymer, holding potential as a primitive genetic material and as a contemporary molecular tool. In this review, we aim to provide an extensive overview of TNA research progress in these two key aspects. We begin with a retrospect of the initial discovery of TNA, followed by an in-depth look at the structural features of TNA duplex and experimental assessment of TNA as a possible RNA progenitor during early evolution of life on Earth. In the subsequent section, we delve into the recent development of TNA molecular tools such as aptamers, catalysts and antisense oligonucleotides. We emphasize the practical application of functional TNA molecules in the realms of targeted protein degradation and selective gene silencing. Our review culminates with a discussion of future research directions and the technical challenges that remain to be addressed in the field of TNA research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Hanyang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China.
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Kawamoto Y, Wu Y, Takahashi Y, Takakura Y. Development of nucleic acid medicines based on chemical technology. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 199:114872. [PMID: 37244354 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Oligonucleotide-based therapeutics have attracted attention as an emerging modality that includes the modulation of genes and their binding proteins related to diseases, allowing us to take action on previously undruggable targets. Since the late 2010s, the number of oligonucleotide medicines approved for clinical uses has dramatically increased. Various chemistry-based technologies have been developed to improve the therapeutic properties of oligonucleotides, such as chemical modification, conjugation, and nanoparticle formation, which can increase nuclease resistance, enhance affinity and selectivity to target sites, suppress off-target effects, and improve pharmacokinetic properties. Similar strategies employing modified nucleobases and lipid nanoparticles have been used for developing coronavirus disease 2019 mRNA vaccines. In this review, we provide an overview of the development of chemistry-based technologies aimed at using nucleic acids for developing therapeutics over the past several decades, with a specific emphasis on the structural design and functionality of chemical modification strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kawamoto
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Drug Metabolism, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
| | - You Wu
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Drug Metabolism, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yuki Takahashi
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Drug Metabolism, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yoshinobu Takakura
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Drug Metabolism, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
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Yu CH, Sczepanski JT. The influence of chirality on the behavior of oligonucleotides inside cells: revealing the potent cytotoxicity of G-rich l-RNA. Chem Sci 2023; 14:1145-1154. [PMID: 36756313 PMCID: PMC9891384 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc05511b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their intrinsic nuclease resistance, mirror image l-oligonucleotides are being increasingly employed in the development of biomedical research tools and therapeutics. Yet, the influence of chirality on the behavior of oligonucleotides in living systems, and specifically, the extent to which l-oligonucleotides interact with endogenous biomacromolecules and the resulting consequences remain unknown. In this study, we characterized the intracellular behavior of l-oligonucleotides for the first time, revealing important chirality-dependent effects on oligonucleotide cytotoxicity. We show that exogenously delivered l-oligonucleotides have the potential to be highly cytotoxic, which is dependent on backbone chemistry, sequence, and structure. Notably, for the sequences tested, we found that single-stranded G-rich l-RNAs are more cytotoxic than their d-DNA/RNA counterparts, exhibiting low nanomolar EC50 values. Importantly, RNA-seq analysis of differentially expressed genes suggests that G-rich l-RNAs stimulate an innate immune response and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. These data not only challenge the general perception that mirror image l-oligonucleotides are nontoxic and nonimmunogenic, but also reveal previously unrecognized therapeutic opportunities. Moreover, by establishing sequence/structure toxicity relationships, this work will guide how future l-oligonucleotide-based biotechnologies are designed and applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Hsu Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University College Station Texas 77843 USA
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Ivanov GS, Tribulovich VG, Pestov NB, David TI, Amoah AS, Korneenko TV, Barlev NA. Artificial genetic polymers against human pathologies. Biol Direct 2022; 17:39. [PMID: 36474260 PMCID: PMC9727881 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-022-00353-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Originally discovered by Nielsen in 1991, peptide nucleic acids and other artificial genetic polymers have gained a lot of interest from the scientific community. Due to their unique biophysical features these artificial hybrid polymers are now being employed in various areas of theranostics (therapy and diagnostics). The current review provides an overview of their structure, principles of rational design, and biophysical features as well as highlights the areas of their successful implementation in biology and biomedicine. Finally, the review discusses the areas of improvement that would allow their use as a new class of therapeutics in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gleb S Ivanov
- Institute of Cytology, Tikhoretsky Ave 4, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 194064
- St. Petersburg State Technological Institute (Technical University), Saint Petersburg, Russia, 190013
| | - Vyacheslav G Tribulovich
- St. Petersburg State Technological Institute (Technical University), Saint Petersburg, Russia, 190013
| | - Nikolay B Pestov
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Moscow, Russia, 108819
- Phystech School of Biological and Medical Physics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, Russia, 141701
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, Russia, 117997
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia, 119121б
| | - Temitope I David
- Phystech School of Biological and Medical Physics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, Russia, 141701
| | - Abdul-Saleem Amoah
- Phystech School of Biological and Medical Physics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, Russia, 141701
| | - Tatyana V Korneenko
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, Russia, 117997
| | - Nikolai A Barlev
- Institute of Cytology, Tikhoretsky Ave 4, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 194064.
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia, 119121б.
- School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, 010000, Astana, Kazakhstan.
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Bano N, Ehlinger C, Yang TY, Swanson M, Allen S. Considerations in the Immunogenicity Assessment Strategy for Oligonucleotide Therapeutics (ONTs). AAPS J 2022; 24:93. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-022-00741-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Bartolucci D, Pession A, Hrelia P, Tonelli R. Precision Anti-Cancer Medicines by Oligonucleotide Therapeutics in Clinical Research Targeting Undruggable Proteins and Non-Coding RNAs. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14071453. [PMID: 35890348 PMCID: PMC9315662 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14071453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer incidence and mortality continue to increase, while the conventional chemotherapeutic drugs confer limited efficacy and relevant toxic side effects. Novel strategies are urgently needed for more effective and safe therapeutics in oncology. However, a large number of proteins are considered undruggable by conventional drugs, such as the small molecules. Moreover, the mRNA itself retains oncological functions, and its targeting offers the double advantage of blocking the tumorigenic activities of the mRNA and the translation into protein. Finally, a large family of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) has recently emerged that are also dysregulated in cancer, but they could not be targeted by drugs directed against the proteins. In this context, this review describes how the oligonucleotide therapeutics targeting RNA or DNA sequences, are emerging as a new class of drugs, able to tackle the limitations described above. Numerous clinical trials are evaluating oligonucleotides for tumor treatment, and in the next few years some of them are expected to reach the market. We describe the oligonucleotide therapeutics targeting undruggable proteins (focusing on the most relevant, such as those originating from the MYC and RAS gene families), and for ncRNAs, in particular on those that are under clinical trial evaluation in oncology. We highlight the challenges and solutions for the clinical success of oligonucleotide therapeutics, with particular emphasis on the peculiar challenges that render it arduous to treat tumors, such as heterogeneity and the high mutation rate. In the review are presented these and other advantages offered by the oligonucleotide as an emerging class of biotherapeutics for a new era of precision anti-cancer medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea Pession
- Pediatric Unit, IRCCS, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Roberto Tonelli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
- Correspondence:
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Wang F, Liu LS, Li P, Lau CH, Leung HM, Chin YR, Tin C, Lo PK. Cellular uptake, tissue penetration, biodistribution, and biosafety of threose nucleic acids: Assessing in vitro and in vivo delivery. Mater Today Bio 2022; 15:100299. [PMID: 35637854 PMCID: PMC9142632 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Wang F, Liu LS, Li P, Leung HM, Tam DY, Lo PK. Biologically stable threose nucleic acid-based probes for real-time microRNA detection and imaging in living cells. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids 2022; 27:787-796. [PMID: 35116190 PMCID: PMC8789592 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2021.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We successfully fabricated threose nucleic acid (TNA)-based probes for real-time monitoring of target miRNA levels in cells. Our TNA probe is comprised of a fluorophore-labeled TNA reporter strand by partially hybridizing to a quencher-labeled TNA that is designed to be antisense to a target RNA transcript; this results in effective quenching of its fluorescence. In the presence of RNA targets, the antisense capture sequence of the TNA binds to targeted transcripts to form longer, thermodynamic stable duplexes. This binding event displaces the reporter strand from the quencher resulting in a discrete “turning-on” of the fluorescence. Our TNA probe is highly specific and selective toward target miRNA and is able to distinguish one to two base mismatches in the target RNA. Compared with DNA probes, our TNA probes exhibited favorable nuclease stability, thermal stability, and exceptional storage ability for long-term cellular studies. Our TNA probes are efficiently taken up by cells with negligible cytotoxicity for dynamic detection of target miRNAs and can also differentiate the distinct target miRNA expression levels in different cell lines. This work illuminates for using TNA as a building component to construct a biocompatible probe for miRNA detection that offers alternative molecular reagents for miRNA-related diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ling Sum Liu
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Pan Li
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hoi Man Leung
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Dick Yan Tam
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Pik Kwan Lo
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China.,Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Care, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
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Wang F, Li P, Chu HC, Lo PK. Nucleic Acids and Their Analogues for Biomedical Applications. Biosensors (Basel) 2022; 12:bios12020093. [PMID: 35200353 PMCID: PMC8869748 DOI: 10.3390/bios12020093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acids are emerging as powerful and functional biomaterials due to their molecular recognition ability, programmability, and ease of synthesis and chemical modification. Various types of nucleic acids have been used as gene regulation tools or therapeutic agents for the treatment of human diseases with genetic disorders. Nucleic acids can also be used to develop sensing platforms for detecting ions, small molecules, proteins, and cells. Their performance can be improved through integration with other organic or inorganic nanomaterials. To further enhance their biological properties, various chemically modified nucleic acid analogues can be generated by modifying their phosphodiester backbone, sugar moiety, nucleobase, or combined sites. Alternatively, using nucleic acids as building blocks for self-assembly of highly ordered nanostructures would enhance their biological stability and cellular uptake efficiency. In this review, we will focus on the development and biomedical applications of structural and functional natural nucleic acids, as well as the chemically modified nucleic acid analogues over the past ten years. The recent progress in the development of functional nanomaterials based on self-assembled DNA-based platforms for gene regulation, biosensing, drug delivery, and therapy will also be presented. We will then summarize with a discussion on the advanced development of nucleic acid research, highlight some of the challenges faced and propose suggestions for further improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China; (F.W.); (P.L.); (H.C.C.)
| | - Pan Li
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China; (F.W.); (P.L.); (H.C.C.)
| | - Hoi Ching Chu
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China; (F.W.); (P.L.); (H.C.C.)
| | - Pik Kwan Lo
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China; (F.W.); (P.L.); (H.C.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Care, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
- Correspondence:
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Kishimoto Y, Fujii A, Nakagawa O, Obika S. Enhanced duplex- and triplex-forming ability and enzymatic resistance of oligodeoxynucleotides modified by a tricyclic thymine derivative. Org Biomol Chem 2021; 19:8063-8074. [PMID: 34494641 DOI: 10.1039/d1ob01462e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We designed and synthesized an artificial nucleic acid, [3-(1,2-dihydro-2-oxobenzo[b][1,8]naphthyridine)]-2'-deoxy-D-ribofuranose (OBN), with a tricyclic structure in a nucleobase as a thymidine analog. Oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing consecutive OBN displayed improved duplex-forming ability with complementary single-stranded (ss) RNA and triplex-forming ability with double-stranded DNA in comparison with ODNs composed of natural thymidine. OBN-modified ODNs also displayed enhanced enzymatic resistance compared with ODNs with natural thymidine and phosphorothioate modification, respectively, due to the structural steric hindrance of the nucleobase. The fluorescence spectra of OBN-modified ODNs showed sufficient fluorescence intensity with ssDNA and ssRNA, which is an advantageous feature for fluorescence imaging techniques of nucleic acids with longer emission wavelengths than bicyclic thymine (bT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kishimoto
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan. .,Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Sciences and Technology Agency (JST), 7 Gobancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
| | - Akane Fujii
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan. .,Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Sciences and Technology Agency (JST), 7 Gobancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
| | - Osamu Nakagawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan. .,Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Sciences and Technology Agency (JST), 7 Gobancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan.,Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, 180 Nishihamahoji, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Obika
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan. .,Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Sciences and Technology Agency (JST), 7 Gobancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan
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Guo D, Yu S, Muhammad N, Huang S, Zhu Y. Poly amidoamine functionalized poly (styrene-divinylbenzene-glycidylmethacrylate) composites for the rapid enrichment and determination of N-phosphoryl peptides. Microchem J 2021; 166:106213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2021.106213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Walsh SM, Sheridan RM, Lucas ED, Doan TA, Ware BC, Schafer J, Fu R, Burchill MA, Hesselberth JR, Tamburini BAJ. Molecular tracking devices quantify antigen distribution and archiving in the murine lymph node. eLife 2021; 10:e62781. [PMID: 33843587 PMCID: PMC8116055 DOI: 10.7554/elife.62781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The detection of foreign antigens in vivo has relied on fluorescent conjugation or indirect read-outs such as antigen presentation. In our studies, we found that these widely used techniques had several technical limitations that have precluded a complete picture of antigen trafficking or retention across lymph node cell types. To address these limitations, we developed a 'molecular tracking device' to follow the distribution, acquisition, and retention of antigen in the lymph node. Utilizing an antigen conjugated to a nuclease-resistant DNA tag, acting as a combined antigen-adjuvant conjugate, and single-cell mRNA sequencing, we quantified antigen abundance in the lymph node. Variable antigen levels enabled the identification of caveolar endocytosis as a mechanism of antigen acquisition or retention in lymphatic endothelial cells. Thus, these molecular tracking devices enable new approaches to study dynamic tissue dissemination of antigen-adjuvant conjugates and identify new mechanisms of antigen acquisition and retention at cellular resolution in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon M Walsh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Ryan M Sheridan
- RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Erin D Lucas
- Immunology Graduate Program, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Thu A Doan
- Immunology Graduate Program, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Brian C Ware
- Immunology Graduate Program, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Johnathon Schafer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Rui Fu
- RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Matthew A Burchill
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Jay R Hesselberth
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
| | - Beth Ann Jiron Tamburini
- Immunology Graduate Program, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Colorado School of MedicineAuroraUnited States
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