Identification of SPRY4 as a Novel Candidate Susceptibility Gene for Familial Nonmedullary Thyroid Cancer

Role of SPRY4 in health and disease

SPRY4 is a protein encoding gene that belongs to the Spry family. It inhibits the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and plays a role in various biological functions under normal and pathological conditions. The SPRY4 protein has a specific structure and interacts with other molecules to regulate cellular behavior. It serves as a negative feedback inhibitor of the receptor protein tyrosine kinases (RTK) signaling pathway and interferes with cell proliferation and migration. SPRY4 also influences inflammation, oxidative stress, and cell apoptosis. In different types of tumors, SPRY4 can act as a tumor suppressor or an oncogene. Its dysregulation is associated with the development and progression of various cancers, including colorectal cancer, glioblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, perihilar cholangiocarcinoma, gastric cancer, breast cancer, and lung cancer. SPRY4 is also involved in organ development and is associated with ischemic diseases. Further research is ongoing to understand the expression and function of SPRY4 in specific tumor microenvironments and its potential as a therapeutic target.

Chromosomal localization of mutated genes in non-syndromic familial thyroid cancer

Familial non-medullary thyroid carcinoma (FNMTC) is a type of thyroid cancer characterized by genetic susceptibility, representing approximately 5% of all non-medullary thyroid carcinomas. While some cases of FNMTC are associated with familial multi-organ tumor predisposition syndromes, the majority occur independently. The genetic mechanisms underlying non-syndromic FNMTC remain unclear. Initial studies utilized SNP linkage analysis to identify susceptibility loci, including the 1q21 locus, 2q21 locus, and 4q32 locus, among others. Subsequent research employed more advanced techniques such as Genome-wide Association Study and Whole Exome Sequencing, leading to the discovery of genes such as IMMP2L, GALNTL4, WDR11-AS1, DUOX2, NOP53, MAP2K5, and others. But FNMTC exhibits strong genetic heterogeneity, with each family having its own pathogenic genes. This is the first article to provide a chromosomal landscape map of susceptibility genes associated with non-syndromic FNMTC and analyze their potential associations. It also presents a detailed summary of variant loci, characteristics, research methodologies, and validation results from different countries.

CHEK2 germline variants identified in familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer lead to impaired protein structure and function

Approximately 5 to 15% of nonmedullary thyroid cancers (NMTC) present in a familial form (familial nonmedullary thyroid cancers [FNMTC]). The genetic basis of FNMTC remains largely unknown, representing a limitation for diagnostic and clinical management. Recently, germline mutations in DNA repair-related genes have been described in cases with thyroid cancer (TC), suggesting a role in FNMTC etiology. Here, two FNMTC families were studied, each with two members affected with TC. Ninety-four hereditary cancer predisposition genes were analyzed through next-generation sequencing, revealing two germline CHEK2 missense variants (c.962A > C, p.E321A and c.470T > C, p.I157T), which segregated with TC in each FNMTC family. p.E321A, located in the CHK2 protein kinase domain, is a rare variant, previously unreported in the literature. Conversely, p.I157T, located in CHK2 forkhead-associated domain, has been extensively described, having conflicting interpretations of pathogenicity. CHK2 proteins (WT and variants) were characterized using biophysical methods, molecular dynamics simulations, and immunohistochemistry. Overall, biophysical characterization of these CHK2 variants showed that they have compromised structural and conformational stability and impaired kinase activity, compared to the WT protein. CHK2 appears to aggregate into amyloid-like fibrils in vitro, which opens future perspectives toward positioning CHK2 in cancer pathophysiology. CHK2 variants exhibited higher propensity for this conformational change, also displaying higher expression in thyroid tumors. The present findings support the utility of complementary biophysical and in silico approaches toward understanding the impact of genetic variants in protein structure and function, improving the current knowledge on CHEK2 variants' role in FNMTC genetic basis, with prospective clinical translation.

Identification of Germline FOXE1 and Somatic MAPK Pathway Gene Alterations in Patients with Malignant Struma Ovarii, Cleft Palate and Thyroid Cancer

Germline variants in the FOXE1 transcription factor have been associated with thyroid ectopy, cleft palate (CP) and thyroid cancer (TC). Here, we aimed to clarify the role of FOXE1 in Portuguese families (F1 and F2) with members diagnosed with malignant struma ovarii (MSO), an ovarian teratoma with ectopic malignant thyroid tissue, papillary TC (PTC) and CP. Two rare germline heterozygous variants in the FOXE1 promoter were identified: F1) c.-522G>C, in the proband (MSO) and her mother (asymptomatic); F2) c.9C>T, in the proband (PTC), her sister and her mother (CP). Functional studies using rat normal thyroid (PCCL3) and human PTC (TPC-1) cells revealed that c.9C>T decreased FOXE1 promoter transcriptional activity in both cell models, while c.-522G>C led to opposing activities in the two models, when compared to the wild type. Immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR analyses of patients' thyroid tumours revealed lower FOXE1 expression compared to adjacent normal and hyperplastic thyroid tissues. The patient with MSO also harboured a novel germline AXIN1 variant, presenting a loss of heterozygosity in its benign and malignant teratoma tissues and observable β-catenin cytoplasmic accumulation. The sequencing of the F1 (MSO) and F2 (PTC) probands' tumours unveiled somatic BRAF and HRAS variants, respectively. Germline FOXE1 and AXIN1 variants might have a role in thyroid ectopy and cleft palate, which, together with MAPK pathway activation, may contribute to tumours' malignant transformation.

Identification of a Novel Germline PPP4R3A Missense Mutation Asp409Asn on Familial Non-Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma

Familial non-medullary thyroid carcinoma (FNMTC) accounts for 3% to 9% of all thyroid cancer cases, yet its genetic mechanisms remain unknown. Our study aimed to screen and identify novel susceptibility genes for FNMTC. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) was conducted on a confirmed FNMTC pedigree, comprising four affected individuals across two generations. Variants were filtered and analyzed using ExAC and 1000 Genomes Project, with candidate gene pathogenicity predicted using SIFT, PolyPhen, and MutationTaster. Validation was performed through Sanger sequencing in affected pedigree members and sporadic patients (TCGA database) as well as general population data (gnomAD database). Ultimately, we identified the mutant PPP4R3A (NC_000014.8:g.91942196C>T, or NM_001366432.2(NP_001353361.1):p.(Asp409Asn), based on GRCH37) as an FNMTC susceptibility gene. Subsequently, a series of functional experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of PPP4R3A and its Asp409Asn missense variant in thyroid cancer. Our findings demonstrated that wild-type PPP4R3A exerted tumor-suppressive effects via the Akt-mTOR-P70 S6K/4E-BP1 axis. However, overexpression of the PPP4R3A Asp409Asn mutant resulted in loss of tumor-suppressive function, ineffective inhibition of cell invasion, and even promotion of cell proliferation and migration by activating the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. These results indicated that the missense variant PPP4R3A Asp409Asn is a candidate susceptibility gene for FNMTC, providing new insights into the diagnosis and intervention of FNMTC.

Sprouty4 is epigenetically upregulated in human colorectal cancer

Sprouty4 (SPRY4) has been frequently reported as a tumor suppressor and is therefore downregulated in various cancers. For the first time, we report that SPRY4 is epigenetically upregulated in colorectal cancer (CRC). In this study, we explored DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation levels of SPRY4 in CRC cells and patient samples and correlated these findings with mRNA and protein expression levels. Three loci within the promoter region of SPRY4 were evaluated for 5mC levels in CRC using the combined bisulfite restriction analysis. In addition, hydroxymethylation levels within SPRY4 were measured in CRC patients. Lastly, DNA methylation and mRNA expression data were extracted from CRC patients in multiple high-throughput data repositories like Gene Expression Omnibus and The Cancer Genome Atlas. Combined in vitro and in silico analysis of promoter methylation levels of SPRY4 clearly demonstrates that the distal promoter region undergoes hypomethylation in CRC patients and is associated with increased expression. Moreover, a decrease in gene body hydroxymethylation and an increase in gene body methylation within the coding region of SPRY4 were found in CRC patients and correlated with increased expression. SPRY4 is epigenetically upregulated in CRC by promoter hypomethylation and hypermethylation within the gene body that warrants future investigation of atypical roles of this established tumor suppressor.

SPRY4 as a Potential Mediator of the Anti-Tumoral Role of Macrophages in Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer Cells

Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) is the most lethal subtype of thyroid cancer, with high invasive and metastatic potential, not responding to conventional treatments. Its aggressiveness may be influenced by macrophages, which are abundant cells in the tumor microenvironment. To investigate the role of macrophages in ATC aggressiveness, indirect co-cultures were established between ATC cell lines and THP-1-derived macrophages. Macrophages significantly increased both the migration and invasion of T235 cells (p < 0.01; p < 0.01), contrasting with a decrease in C3948 (p < 0.001; p < 0.05), with mild effects in T238 migration (p < 0.01) and C643 invasion (p < 0.05). Flow cytometry showed upregulation of CD80 (pro-inflammatory, anti-tumoral) and downregulation of CD163 (anti-inflammatory, pro-tumoral) in macrophages from co-culture with T235 (p < 0.05) and C3948 (p < 0.05), respectively. Accordingly, we found an upregulation of secreted pro-inflammatory mediators (e.g., GM-CSF, IL-1α; p < 0.05) in C3948-macrophage co-cultures. Proteomic analysis showed the upregulation of SPRY4, an inhibitor of the MAPK pathway, in C3948 cells from co-culture. SPRY4 silencing promoted cancer cell invasion, reverting the reduced invasion of C3948 caused by macrophages. Our findings support that macrophages play a role in ATC cell aggressiveness. SPRY4 is a possible modulator of macrophage-ATC cell communication, with a tumor suppressor role relevant for therapeutic purposes.

Novel Susceptibility Genes Drive Familial Non-Medullary Thyroid Cancer in a Large Consanguineous Kindred

Familial non-medullary thyroid cancer (FNMTC) is a well-differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) of follicular cell origin in two or more first-degree relatives. Patients typically demonstrate an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern with incomplete penetrance. While known genes and chromosomal loci account for some FNMTC, the molecular basis for most FNMTC remains elusive. To identify the variation(s) causing FNMTC in an extended consanguineous family consisting of 16 papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) cases, we performed whole exome sequence (WES) analysis of six family patients. We demonstrated an association of ARHGEF28, FBXW10, and SLC47A1 genes with FNMTC. The variations in these genes may affect the structures of their encoded proteins and, thus, their function. The most promising causative gene is ARHGEF28, which has high expression in the thyroid, and its protein-protein interactions (PPIs) suggest predisposition of PTC through ARHGEF28-SQSTM1-TP53 or ARHGEF28-PTCSC2-FOXE1-TP53 associations. Using DNA from a patient's thyroid malignant tissue, we analyzed the possible cooperation of somatic variations with these genes. We revealed two somatic heterozygote variations in XRCC1 and HRAS genes known to implicate thyroid cancer. Thus, the predisposition by the germline variations and a second hit by somatic variations could lead to the progression to PTC.

Identification of NID1 as a novel candidate susceptibility gene for familial non-medullary thyroid carcinoma using whole-exome sequencing

The genetics underlying non-syndromic familial non-medullary thyroid carcinoma (FNMTC) is still poorly understood. To identify susceptibility genes for FNMTC, we performed whole-exome sequencing (WES) in a Brazilian family affected by papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) in three consecutive generations. WES was performed in four affected and two unaffected family members. Manual inspection in over 100 previously reported susceptibility genes for FNMTC showed that no variants in known genes co-segregated with disease phenotype in this family. Novel candidate genes were investigated using PhenoDB and filtered using Genome Aggregation (gnomAD) and Online Archive of Brazilian Mutations (ABraOM) population databases. The missense variant p.Ile657Met in the NID1 gene was the only variant that co-segregated with the disease, while absent in unaffected family members and controls. The allele frequency for this variant was <0.0001 in the gnomAD and ABbraOM databases. In silico analysis predicted the variant to be deleterious or likely damaging to the protein function. Somatic mutations in NID1 gene were found in nearly 500 cases of different cancer subtypes in the intOGen platform. Immunohistochemistry analysis showed NID1 expression in PTC cells, while it was absent in normal thyroid tissue. Our findings were corroborated using data from the TCGA cohort. Moreover, higher expression of NID1 was associated with higher likelihood of relapse after treatment and N1b disease in PTCs from the TCGA cohort. Although replication studies are needed to better understand the role of this variant in the FNMTC susceptibility, the NID1 variant (c.1971T>G) identified in this study fulfills several criteria that suggest it as a new FNMTC predisposing gene.