Congenital Rubella Syndrome Surveillance in South Africa Using a Sentinel Site Approach: A Cross-sectional Study

The burden, prevention and care of infants and children with congenital anomalies in sub-Saharan Africa: A scoping review

The aim of this scoping review was to determine the scope, objectives and methodology of contemporary published research on congenital anomalies (CAs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), to inform activities of the newly established sub-Saharan African Congenital Anomaly Network (sSCAN). MEDLINE was searched for CA-related articles published between January 2016 and June 2021. Articles were classified into four main areas (public health burden, surveillance, prevention, care) and their objectives and methodologies summarized. Of the 532 articles identified, 255 were included. The articles originated from 22 of the 49 SSA countries, with four countries contributing 60% of the articles: Nigeria (22.0%), Ethiopia (14.1%), Uganda (11.7%) and South Africa (11.7%). Only 5.5% of studies involved multiple countries within the region. Most articles included CA as their primary focus (85%), investigated a single CA (88%), focused on CA burden (56.9%) and care (54.1%), with less coverage of surveillance (3.5%) and prevention (13.3%). The most common study designs were case studies/case series (26.6%), followed by cross-sectional surveys (17.6%), retrospective record reviews (17.3%), and cohort studies (17.2%). Studies were mainly derived from single hospitals (60.4%), with only 9% being population-based studies. Most data were obtained from retrospective review of clinical records (56.1%) or via caregiver interviews (34.9%). Few papers included stillbirths (7.5%), prenatally diagnosed CAs (3.5%) or terminations of pregnancy for CA (2.4%).This first-of-a-kind-scoping review on CA in SSA demonstrated an increasing level of awareness and recognition among researchers in SSA of the contribution of CAs to under-5 mortality and morbidity in the region. The review also highlighted the need to address diagnosis, prevention, surveillance and care to meet Sustainable Development Goals 3.2 and 3.8. The SSA sub-region faces unique challenges, including fragmentation of efforts that we hope to surmount through sSCAN via a multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder approach.

Evaluation of the rubella surveillance system in South Africa, 2016-2018: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Rubella is a leading vaccine-preventable cause of birth defects. We conducted this study to evaluate the rubella surveillance system in South Africa from 2016 to 2018. The rubella surveillance system had not been evaluated since its inception; therefore, a formal evaluation is necessary to assess key attributes and to ascertain the extent to which the system achieves its objectives.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study to assess the usefulness, simplicity, positive predictive value, timeliness, and data quality of the rubella surveillance system from 2016 to 2018. We reviewed retrospective rubella surveillance data and conducted a survey with key stakeholders of the system. We compiled a summary report from the survey and calculated the annualized detection rate of rubella and non-rubella febrile rash, positive predictive value, the proportion of complete records, and timeliness between the surveillance steps. We compared our results with recommended performance indicators from the 2015 revised World Health Organization African regional guidelines for measles and rubella surveillance.

RESULTS

The rubella surveillance system was useful but weak in terms of simplicity. The annualized detection rate of rubella febrile rash was 1.5 per 100,000 populations in 2016, 4.4 in 2017, and 2.1 in 2018. The positive predictive value was 29.1% in 2016, 40.9% in 2017, and 32.9% in 2018. The system did not meet the timeliness goal in the health facility component but met this goal in the laboratory component. The system had poor data quality, particularly in the health facility component.

CONCLUSIONS

The rubella surveillance system was useful, although it was not simple to use and had low PPV, poor timeliness, and poor data quality. Efforts should be made to improve the system's simplicity, PPV, timeliness, and data quality at the facility level.

Evaluating patient data quality in South Africa's National Health Laboratory Service Data Warehouse, 2017-2020: implications for monitoring child health programmes

Background

South Africa’s National Health Laboratory Service (NHLS), the only clinical laboratory service in the country’s public health sector, is an important resource for monitoring public health programmes.

Objectives

We describe NHLS data quality, particularly patient demographics among infants, and the effect this has on linking multiple test results to a single patient.

Methods

Retrospective descriptive analysis of NHLS data from 1^st January 2017—1^st September 2020 was performed. A validated probabilistic record-linking algorithm linked multiple results to individual patients in lieu of a unique patient identifier. Paediatric HIV PCR data was used to illustrate the effect on monitoring and evaluating a public health programme. Descriptive statistics including medians, proportions and inter quartile ranges are reported, with Chi-square univariate tests for independence used to determine association between variables.

Results

During the period analysed, 485 300 007 tests, 98 217 642 encounters and 35 771 846 patients met criteria for analysis. Overall, 15.80% (n = 15 515 380) of all encounters had a registered national identity (ID) number, 2.11% (n = 2 069 785) were registered without a given name, 63.15% (n = 62 020 107) were registered to women and 32.89% (n = 32 304 329) of all folder numbers were listed as either the patient’s date of birth or unknown. For infants tested at < 7 days of age (n = 2 565 329), 0.099% (n = 2 534) had an associated ID number and 48.87% (n = 1 253 620) were registered without a given name. Encounters with a given name were linked to a subsequent encounter 40.78% (n = 14 180 409 of 34 775 617) of the time, significantly more often than the 21.85% (n = 217 660 of 996 229) of encounters registered with a baby-derivative name (p-value < 0.001).

Conclusion

Unavailability and poor capturing of patient demographics, especially among infants and children, affects the ability to accurately monitor routine health programmes. A unique national patient identifier, other than the national ID number, is urgently required and must be available at birth if South Africa is to accurately monitor programmes such as the Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-13508-y.

A retrospective 5-year review of rubella in South Africa prior to the introduction of a rubella-containing vaccine

South Africa has yet to introduce a rubella-containing vaccine (RCV) into its Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI). Here we evaluated the incidence of laboratory-confirmed rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) cases over the years 2015 to 2019, to document the epidemiology of rubella and CRS within South Africa prior to a RCV introduction. This retrospective study evaluated the number of laboratory-confirmed rubella cases reported through the national febrile rash surveillance system. A positive test for rubella immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies was considered a confirmed rubella case. For CRS cases, we reported laboratory-confirmed CRS cases collected from 28 sentinel-sites from all nine provinces of South Africa. From 2015-2019, 19 773 serum samples were tested for rubella IgM antibodies, 6 643 (33.6%) were confirmed rubella cases. Rubella was seasonal, with peaks in spring (September to November). Case numbers were similar between males (n = 3 239; 50.1%) and females (n = 3 232; 49.9%). The highest burden of cases occurred in 2017 (n = 2 526; 38%). The median age was 5 years (IQR: 3-7 years). Importantly, of females with rubella, 5.0% (161 of 3 232) of the cases were among women of reproductive age (15-44 years). A total of 62 CRS cases were reported, the mortality rate was 12.9% (n = 8), and the most common birth defect was congenital heart disease. In conclusion, rubella is endemic in South Africa. Children below the age of 10 years were the most affected, however, rubella was also reported among women of reproductive age. The baseline data represented here provides insight into the burden of rubella and CRS in South Africa prior to the introduction of a RCV, and can enable planning of RCV introduction into the South African EPI.

Descriptive and risk factor analysis of infantile cataracts: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 2000-2011

Using National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS) data, we sought to estimate birth prevalence, describe clinical characteristics, and examine risk factors for infantile cataracts. We calculated birth prevalence using the numbers of NBDPS-eligible cataract cases and live births in the study area. We described case infants by the presence of associated ipsilateral eye defects (IEDs) and non-eye-related major birth defects. Using maternal exposure information collected via telephone interview, we conducted logistic regression analyses among the interviewed cases and controls. Birth prevalence of infantile cataracts was 1.07/10,000 live births. Unilateral cataracts were more often associated with IEDs, while infants with bilateral cataracts were more often preterm, full-term with low birth weight, or had non-eye-related major birth defects. Unilateral cataracts were positively associated with maternal nulliparity (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.61, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.18, 2.20; reference: multiparity), whereas bilateral cataracts were positively associated with maternal education <12 years (aOR = 2.08, 95% CI = 1.13, 3.82; reference: education >12 years), and foreign-born nativity (aOR = 1.92, 95% CI = 1.04, 3.52; reference: U.S.-born nativity). The current analysis can inform future epidemiological studies aimed at identifying mechanisms underlying the associations between infantile cataracts and complex maternal exposures, such as lower levels of education and foreign-born nativity.

Congenital Rubella Syndrome Surveillance After Measles Rubella Vaccination Introduction in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

BACKGROUND

Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) is a fatal disease causing severe congenital defects. Indonesia had the highest CRS cases in the world in 2016 with a commitment to achieve elimination of rubella disease by 2020, through the campaign and introduction of measles rubella (MR) national vaccination program in 2017 and 2018. This study aimed to describe the impact of the national vaccination campaign by conducting surveillance of CRS cases and comparing the incidence of new CRS cases before and after the MR vaccination campaign.

METHODS

From July 2015 to July 2020, we conducted surveillance of CRS in Yogyakarta. Suspected patients underwent complete clinical examinations. Serology was tested for the presence of IgM and IgG antibodies against rubella. Descriptive analysis was used to characterize the demographic and clinical characteristics of the cases before and after the MR vaccination campaign.

RESULTS

The study involved 229 infants who were suspected for CRS. Laboratory-confirmed cases were found in 47 of them (20.86%). Most of the laboratory-confirmed cases (55.3%) were reported among 1-5 months old infants. Common clinical features among laboratory-confirmed cases included structural heart defects in 43 (91.4%). There was a significant decrease (60.9%) of CRS incidence from 0.39 per 1000 live births in the precampaign era to 0.08 in the postcampaign era (P = 0.00).

CONCLUSION

There has been a significant declining number of CRS cases based on pre- and post-MR vaccination campaign in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. An effective surveillance system will help monitor the number of CRS cases.

Rubella Eradication: Not Yet Accomplished, but Entirely Feasible

Rubella virus is the most teratogenic virus known to science and is capable of causing large epidemics. The RA 27/3 rubella vaccine, usually combined with measles vaccine, has eliminated rubella and congenital rubella syndrome from much of the world, notably from the Western Hemisphere. Except in immunosuppressed individuals, it is remarkably safe. Together with rubella vaccine strains used in China and Japan, eradication of the rubella virus is possible, indeed more feasible than eradication of measles or mumps.

Strategies for elimination of rubella in pregnancy and of congenital rubella syndrome in high and upper-middle income countries

Rubella infection generally leads to mild symptoms; otherwise, in pregnant women it can cause severe damages. The only way to prevent rubella is vaccine. Before the introduction of the vaccine, up to 4 babies in 1000 live births were born with CRS.

This work aims to review the most important strategies for the elimination of CRS in upper and high-income countries.

Papers were selected through a PubMed search up to January 2019, using keywords rubella, congenital rubella syndrome and epidemiology. Articles published in the last 12 years and referred to upper income and high-income countries in title or abstract were included.

Sixty-five papers were selected dealing with one or more of the following strategies: increasing of rubella vaccination coverage in childbearing age women, males, immigrants; exploitation of all appropriate occasions; improving of rubella surveillance.

Despite numerous suggestions and indications for valid strategies to eliminate rubella in pregnancy and congenital rubella syndrome, a practical application is often missing.

Epidemiology of Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS) in India, 2016-18, based on data from sentinel surveillance

Background

Government of India is committed to eliminate measles and control rubella/congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) by 2020. In 2016, CRS surveillance was established in five sentinel sites. We analyzed surveillance data to describe the epidemiology of CRS in India.

Methodology/Principal findings

We used case definitions adapted from the WHO-recommended standards for CRS surveillance. Suspected patients underwent complete clinical examination including cardiovascular system, ophthalmic examination and assessment for hearing impairment. Sera were tested for presence of IgM and IgG antibodies against rubella. Of the 645 suspected CRS patients enrolled during two years, 137 (21.2%) were classified as laboratory confirmed CRS and 8 (1.2%) as congenital rubella infection. The median age of laboratory confirmed CRS infants was 3 months. Common clinical features among laboratory confirmed CRS patients included structural heart defects in 108 (78.8%), one or more eye signs (cataract, glaucoma, pigmentary retinopathy) in 82 (59.9%) and hearing impairment in 51. (38.6%) Thirty-three (24.1%) laboratory confirmed CRS patients died over a period of 2 years. Surveillance met the quality indicators in terms of adequacy of investigation, adequacy of sample collection for serological diagnosis as well as virological confirmation.

Conclusions/Significance

About one fifth suspected CRS patients were laboratory confirmed, indicating significance of rubella as a persistent public health problem in India. Continued surveillance will generate data to monitor the progress made by the rubella control program in the country.

Rubella infection during the first trimester of pregnancy can affect the fetus, resulting in spontaneous abortion, stillbirth or an infant born with a combination of birth defects known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Government of India is committed to eliminate measles and control rubella/CRS and has completed nationwide immunization campaigns using measles-rubella vaccine targeting children aged 9 months to 14 years. A case-based surveillance for CRS is one of the strategies for achieving elimination. The Indian Council of Medical Research and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare initiated surveillance for CRS in five sentinel sites to estimate the disease burden. During 2016–18, the surveillance sites enrolled 645 suspected CRS patients, 137 (21.2%) were classified as laboratory confirmed CRS and 8 (1.2%) as congenital rubella infection. Common clinical features among laboratory confirmed CRS patients included structural heart defects (78.8%), one or more eye signs (cataract, glaucoma, pigmentary retinopathy (59.9%)) and hearing impairment (38.6%). Thirty-three (24.1%) laboratory confirmed CRS patients died over a period of 2 years. The surveillance data indicated significance of rubella as persistent public health problem in India.

Rubella seroprevalence in pregnant women living with and without HIV in Soweto, South Africa

OBJECTIVES

Rubella infection during pregnancy may cause foetal death or congenital rubella syndrome. In South Africa, the national public immunization programme does not include rubella vaccination. The aim of this study was to evaluate rubella sero-epidemiology in pregnant South African women living with and without HIV.

METHODS

Serum samples obtained from women living with HIV (n=552) and without HIV (n=552) were tested for rubella immunoglobulin G antibodies using an ELISA. The proportions of women with seronegative titres (<8IU/ml) and seropositive titres (≥11IU/ml), and geometric mean titres (GMT) were compared by age group and HIV status.

RESULTS

The overall proportion of rubella seropositivity was 97.8%. The proportion of seropositive women increased with age group (18-25 years: 97.0%; 26-32 years: 97.7%; 33-40 years: 99.3%; p=0.047 after adjusting for HIV status). Similar proportions of women living with and without HIV were seropositive.

CONCLUSIONS

Rubella immunity was high among South African pregnant women living with and without HIV in the absence of rubella vaccination in the public immunization programme. However, a lower percentage of younger women had seropositive titres, indicating the need for routine rubella vaccination after an increase in vaccine coverage rates.

Measles and rubella serosurvey identifies rubella immunity gap in young adults of childbearing age in Zambia: The added value of nesting a serological survey within a post-campaign coverage evaluation survey

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We nested a measles and rubella serological survey in a vaccination coverage survey.

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Measles and rubella immunity was significantly higher than expected by vaccination.

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Study revealed immunity gap in young adults and risk of congenital rubella syndrome.

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Adding serology to a survey leveraged resources and provided complementary information.

Background

Serological surveys can potentially complement vaccine coverage surveys, such as post-vaccination campaign coverage evaluation surveys (PCES), by providing direct information on population immunity within and outside the target age range of the mass vaccination campaign. We estimate age-specific population immunity to measles and rubella viruses in Southern Province, Zambia, and assess the value of adding serological data to vaccination coverage estimates by nesting a serological survey within a PCES.

Methods

Dried blood spots (DBS) from fingerprick blood were collected from all individuals ages nine months or older in households participating in the PCES and tested for measles and rubella virus-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) by enzyme immunoassay (Siemens Enzygnost, Marburg, Germany).

Results

Overall seroprevalence was 95.5% (95% CI: 92.8, 97.2) for measles virus-specific IgG and 97.7% (95% CI: 96.0, 98.7) for rubella virus-specific IgG. Rubella seroprevalence was 98.4% (95% CI: 95.9, 99.4) among children eligible for the MR vaccination campaign, significantly higher than the reported measles-rubella (MR) vaccination campaign coverage of 89.8% (p = 0.003), and higher than the 91.3% rubella seroprevalence for adolescents and adults 16–30 years of age (p = 0.049).

Conclusion

Seroprevalence to measles and rubella viruses in children younger than 16 years of age was significantly higher than expected from vaccination coverage estimates, likely reflecting exposure to wild-type viruses and underreporting of vaccination. The serosurvey revealed rubella immunity gaps among women 16–30 years of age, precisely the age group in which protection from rubella is most important to prevent congenital rubella syndrome. Nesting serological surveys within existing surveys can leverage resources and infrastructure while providing complementary information important to immunization programs.