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Gradwell MA, Ozeri-Engelhard N, Eisdorfer JT, Laflamme OD, Gonzalez M, Upadhyay A, Medlock L, Shrier T, Patel KR, Aoki A, Gandhi M, Abbas-Zadeh G, Oputa O, Thackray JK, Ricci M, George A, Yusuf N, Keating J, Imtiaz Z, Alomary SA, Bohic M, Haas M, Hernandez Y, Prescott SA, Akay T, Abraira VE. Multimodal sensory control of motor performance by glycinergic interneurons of the mouse spinal cord deep dorsal horn. Neuron 2024; 112:1302-1327.e13. [PMID: 38452762 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Sensory feedback is integral for contextually appropriate motor output, yet the neural circuits responsible remain elusive. Here, we pinpoint the medial deep dorsal horn of the mouse spinal cord as a convergence point for proprioceptive and cutaneous input. Within this region, we identify a population of tonically active glycinergic inhibitory neurons expressing parvalbumin. Using anatomy and electrophysiology, we demonstrate that deep dorsal horn parvalbumin-expressing interneuron (dPV) activity is shaped by convergent proprioceptive, cutaneous, and descending input. Selectively targeting spinal dPVs, we reveal their widespread ipsilateral inhibition onto pre-motor and motor networks and demonstrate their role in gating sensory-evoked muscle activity using electromyography (EMG) recordings. dPV ablation altered limb kinematics and step-cycle timing during treadmill locomotion and reduced the transitions between sub-movements during spontaneous behavior. These findings reveal a circuit basis by which sensory convergence onto dorsal horn inhibitory neurons modulates motor output to facilitate smooth movement and context-appropriate transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Gradwell
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Nofar Ozeri-Engelhard
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; Neuroscience PhD program, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Jaclyn T Eisdorfer
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Olivier D Laflamme
- Dalhousie PhD program, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Department of Medical Neuroscience, Atlantic Mobility Action Project, Brain Repair Center, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Melissa Gonzalez
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Aman Upadhyay
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; Neuroscience PhD program, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Laura Medlock
- Neurosciences & Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Tara Shrier
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Komal R Patel
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Adin Aoki
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Melissa Gandhi
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Gloria Abbas-Zadeh
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Olisemaka Oputa
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Joshua K Thackray
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA; Tourette International Collaborative Genetics Study (TIC Genetics)
| | - Matthew Ricci
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arlene George
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Nusrath Yusuf
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; Neuroscience PhD program, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Jessica Keating
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Zarghona Imtiaz
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Simona A Alomary
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Manon Bohic
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Michael Haas
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Yurdiana Hernandez
- W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Steven A Prescott
- Neurosciences & Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Turgay Akay
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Atlantic Mobility Action Project, Brain Repair Center, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Victoria E Abraira
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience Department, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.
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Kebschull JM, Casoni F, Consalez GG, Goldowitz D, Hawkes R, Ruigrok TJH, Schilling K, Wingate R, Wu J, Yeung J, Uusisaari MY. Cerebellum Lecture: the Cerebellar Nuclei-Core of the Cerebellum. Cerebellum 2024; 23:620-677. [PMID: 36781689 PMCID: PMC10951048 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-022-01506-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellum is a key player in many brain functions and a major topic of neuroscience research. However, the cerebellar nuclei (CN), the main output structures of the cerebellum, are often overlooked. This neglect is because research on the cerebellum typically focuses on the cortex and tends to treat the CN as relatively simple output nuclei conveying an inverted signal from the cerebellar cortex to the rest of the brain. In this review, by adopting a nucleocentric perspective we aim to rectify this impression. First, we describe CN anatomy and modularity and comprehensively integrate CN architecture with its highly organized but complex afferent and efferent connectivity. This is followed by a novel classification of the specific neuronal classes the CN comprise and speculate on the implications of CN structure and physiology for our understanding of adult cerebellar function. Based on this thorough review of the adult literature we provide a comprehensive overview of CN embryonic development and, by comparing cerebellar structures in various chordate clades, propose an interpretation of CN evolution. Despite their critical importance in cerebellar function, from a clinical perspective intriguingly few, if any, neurological disorders appear to primarily affect the CN. To highlight this curious anomaly, and encourage future nucleocentric interpretations, we build on our review to provide a brief overview of the various syndromes in which the CN are currently implicated. Finally, we summarize the specific perspectives that a nucleocentric view of the cerebellum brings, move major outstanding issues in CN biology to the limelight, and provide a roadmap to the key questions that need to be answered in order to create a comprehensive integrated model of CN structure, function, development, and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justus M Kebschull
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
| | - Filippo Casoni
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, and San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - G Giacomo Consalez
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, and San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniel Goldowitz
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Richard Hawkes
- Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Karl Schilling
- Department of Anatomy, Anatomy & Cell Biology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, 53115, Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany
| | - Richard Wingate
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Joshua Wu
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Joanna Yeung
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Marylka Yoe Uusisaari
- Neuronal Rhythms in Movement Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-Son, Kunigami-Gun, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan.
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Blot FGC, White JJ, van Hattem A, Scotti L, Balaji V, Adolfs Y, Pasterkamp RJ, De Zeeuw CI, Schonewille M. Purkinje cell microzones mediate distinct kinematics of a single movement. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4358. [PMID: 37468512 PMCID: PMC10356806 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The classification of neuronal subpopulations has significantly advanced, yet its relevance for behavior remains unclear. The highly organized flocculus of the cerebellum, known to fine-tune multi-axial eye movements, is an ideal substrate for the study of potential functions of neuronal subpopulations. Here, we demonstrate that its recently identified subpopulations of 9+ and 9- Purkinje cells exhibit an intermediate Aldolase C expression and electrophysiological profile, providing evidence for a graded continuum of intrinsic properties among PC subpopulations. By identifying and utilizing two Cre-lines that genetically target these floccular domains, we show with high spatial specificity that these subpopulations of Purkinje cells participate in separate micromodules with topographically organized connections. Finally, optogenetic excitation of the respective subpopulations results in movements around the same axis in space, yet with distinct kinematic profiles. These results indicate that Purkinje cell subpopulations integrate in discrete circuits and mediate particular parameters of single movements.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joshua J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Amy van Hattem
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Licia Scotti
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vaishnavi Balaji
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Youri Adolfs
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - R Jeroen Pasterkamp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Chris I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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4
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Maurer L, Brown M, Saggi T, Cardiges A, Kolarcik CL. Hindlimb muscle representations in mouse motor cortex defined by viral tracing. Front Neuroanat 2023; 17:965318. [PMID: 37303816 PMCID: PMC10248224 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2023.965318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Descending pathways from the cortex to the spinal cord are involved in the control of natural movement. Although mice are widely used to study the neurobiology of movement and as models of neurodegenerative disease, an understanding of motor cortical organization is lacking, particularly for hindlimb muscles. Methods In this study, we used the retrograde transneuronal transport of rabies virus to compare the organization of descending cortical projections to fast- and slow-twitch hindlimb muscles surrounding the ankle joint in mice. Results Although the initial stage of virus transport from the soleus muscle (predominantly slow-twitch) appeared to be more rapid than that associated with the tibialis anterior muscle (predominantly fast-twitch), the rate of further transport of virus to cortical projection neurons in layer V was equivalent for the two injected muscles. After appropriate survival times, dense concentrations of layer V projection neurons were identified in three cortical areas: the primary motor cortex (M1), secondary motor cortex (M2), and primary somatosensory cortex (S1). Discussion The origin of the cortical projections to each of the two injected muscles overlapped almost entirely within these cortical areas. This organization suggests that cortical projection neurons maintain a high degree of specificity; that is, even when cortical projection neurons are closely located, each neuron could have a distinct functional role (controlling fast- versus slow-twitch and/or extensor versus flexor muscles). Our results represent an important addition to the understanding of the mouse motor system and lay the foundation for future studies investigating the mechanisms underlying motor system dysfunction and degeneration in diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal muscular atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Maurer
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Maia Brown
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Tamandeep Saggi
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Alexia Cardiges
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Christi L. Kolarcik
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- LiveLikeLou Center for ALS Research, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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5
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Ruigrok TJH, Wang X, Sabel-Goedknegt E, Coulon P, Gao Z. A disynaptic basal ganglia connection to the inferior olive: potential for basal ganglia influence on cerebellar learning. Front Syst Neurosci 2023; 17:1176126. [PMID: 37215357 PMCID: PMC10196041 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2023.1176126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that the cerebellum and the basal ganglia are interconnected at subcortical levels. However, a subcortical basal ganglia connection to the inferior olive (IO), being the source of the olivocerebellar climbing fiber system, is not known. We have used classical tracing with CTb, retrograde transneuronal infection with wildtype rabies virus, conditional tracing with genetically modified rabies virus, and examination of material made available by the Allen Brain Institute, to study potential basal ganglia connections to the inferior olive in rats and mice. We show in both species that parvalbumin-positive, and therefore GABAergic, neurons in the entopeduncular nucleus, representing the rodent equivalent of the internal part of the globus pallidus, innervate a group of cells that surrounds the fasciculus retroflexus and that are collectively known as the area parafascicularis prerubralis. As these neurons supply a direct excitatory input to large parts of the inferior olivary complex, we propose that the entopeduncular nucleus, as a main output station of the basal ganglia, provides an inhibitory influence on olivary excitability. As such, this connection may influence olivary involvement in cerebellar learning and/or could be involved in transmission of reward properties that have recently been established for olivocerebellar signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xiaolu Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Patrice Coulon
- Institute de Neurosciences de la Timone, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Zhenyu Gao
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Beekhof GC, Schonewille M. Lobule-Related Action Potential Shape- and History-Dependent Current Integration in Purkinje Cells of Adult and Developing Mice. Cells 2023; 12. [PMID: 36831290 DOI: 10.3390/cells12040623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Purkinje cells (PCs) are the principal cells of the cerebellar cortex and form a central element in the modular organization of the cerebellum. Differentiation of PCs based on gene expression profiles revealed two subpopulations with distinct connectivity, action potential firing and learning-induced activity changes. However, which basal cell physiological features underlie the differences between these subpopulations and to what extent they integrate input differentially remains largely unclear. Here, we investigate the cellular electrophysiological properties of PC subpopulation in adult and juvenile mice. We found that multiple fundamental cell physiological properties, including membrane resistance and various aspects of the action potential shape, differ between PCs from anterior and nodular lobules. Moreover, the two PC subpopulations also differed in the integration of negative and positive current steps as well as in size of the hyperpolarization-activated current. A comparative analysis in juvenile mice confirmed that most of these lobule-specific differences are already present at pre-weaning ages. Finally, we found that current integration in PCs is input history-dependent for both positive and negative currents, but this is not a distinctive feature between anterior and nodular PCs. Our results support the concept of a fundamental differentiation of PCs subpopulations in terms of cell physiological properties and current integration, yet reveals that history-dependent input processing is consistent across PC subtypes.
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7
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Beckinghausen J, Donofrio SG, Lin T, Miterko LN, White JJ, Lackey EP, Sillitoe RV. Deep Brain Stimulation of the Interposed Cerebellar Nuclei in a Conditional Genetic Mouse Model with Dystonia. Adv Neurobiol 2023; 31:93-117. [PMID: 37338698 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-26220-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Dystonia is a neurological disease that is currently ranked as the third most common motor disorder. Patients exhibit repetitive and sometimes sustained muscle contractions that cause limb and body twisting and abnormal postures that impair movement. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the basal ganglia and thalamus can be used to improve motor function when other treatment options fail. Recently, the cerebellum has garnered interest as a DBS target for treating dystonia and other motor disorders. Here, we describe a procedure for targeting DBS electrodes to the interposed cerebellar nuclei to correct motor dysfunction in a mouse model with dystonia. Targeting cerebellar outflow pathways with neuromodulation opens new possibilities for using the expansive connectivity of the cerebellum to treat motor and non-motor diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn Beckinghausen
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sarah G Donofrio
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tao Lin
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lauren N Miterko
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Joshua J White
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Elizabeth P Lackey
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA.
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Development, Disease Models & Therapeutics Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
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8
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Spaeth L, Bahuguna J, Gagneux T, Dorgans K, Sugihara I, Poulain B, Battaglia D, Isope P. Cerebellar connectivity maps embody individual adaptive behavior in mice. Nat Commun 2022; 13:580. [PMID: 35102165 PMCID: PMC8803868 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-27984-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellar cortex encodes sensorimotor adaptation during skilled locomotor behaviors, however the precise relationship between synaptic connectivity and behavior is unclear. We studied synaptic connectivity between granule cells (GCs) and Purkinje cells (PCs) in murine acute cerebellar slices using photostimulation of caged glutamate combined with patch-clamp in developing or after mice adapted to different locomotor contexts. By translating individual maps into graph network entities, we found that synaptic maps in juvenile animals undergo critical period characterized by dissolution of their structure followed by the re-establishment of a patchy functional organization in adults. Although, in adapted mice, subdivisions in anatomical microzones do not fully account for the observed spatial map organization in relation to behavior, we can discriminate locomotor contexts with high accuracy. We also demonstrate that the variability observed in connectivity maps directly accounts for motor behavior traits at the individual level. Our findings suggest that, beyond general motor contexts, GC-PC networks also encode internal models underlying individual-specific motor adaptation. The variability in synaptic connectivity observed at the cerebellar granule cell - Purkinje cell connection in mice accounts for motor behavior traits at the individual level, suggesting that cerebellar networks encode internal models underlying individual-specific motor adaptation.
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9
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Roelofs TJM, Menting-Henry S, Gol LM, Speel AM, Wielenga VH, Garner KM, Luijendijk MCM, Hennrich AA, Conzelmann KK, Adan RAH. Optimization of whole-brain rabies virus tracing technology for small cell populations. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10400. [PMID: 34002008 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89862-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is critically involved in the regulation of homeostatic energy balance. Some neurons in the LH express receptors for leptin (LepRb), a hormone known to increase energy expenditure and decrease energy intake. However, the neuroanatomical inputs to LepRb-expressing LH neurons remain unknown. We used rabies virus tracing technology to map these inputs, but encountered non-specific tracing. To optimize this technology for a minor cell population (LepRb is not ubiquitously expressed in LH), we used LepRb-Cre mice and assessed how different titers of the avian tumor virus receptor A (TVA) helper virus affected rabies tracing efficiency and specificity. We found that rabies expression is dependent on TVA receptor expression, and that leakiness of TVA receptors is dependent on the titer of TVA virus used. We concluded that a titer of 1.0–3.0 × 107 genomic copies per µl of the TVA virus is optimal for rabies tracing. Next, we successfully applied modified rabies virus tracing technology to map inputs to LepRb-expressing LH neurons. We discovered that other neurons in the LH itself, the periventricular hypothalamic nucleus (Pe), the posterior hypothalamic nucleus (PH), the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), and the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN) are the most prominent input areas to LepRb-expressing LH neurons.
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10
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Beekhof GC, Osório C, White JJ, van Zoomeren S, van der Stok H, Xiong B, Nettersheim IH, Mak WA, Runge M, Fiocchi FR, Boele HJ, Hoebeek FE, Schonewille M. Differential spatiotemporal development of Purkinje cell populations and cerebellum-dependent sensorimotor behaviors. eLife 2021; 10:63668. [PMID: 33973524 PMCID: PMC8195607 DOI: 10.7554/elife.63668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Distinct populations of Purkinje cells (PCs) with unique molecular and connectivity features are at the core of the modular organization of the cerebellum. Previously, we showed that firing activity of PCs differs between ZebrinII-positive and ZebrinII-negative cerebellar modules (Zhou et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2019). Here, we investigate the timing and extent of PC differentiation during development in mice. We found that several features of PCs, including activity levels, dendritic arborization, axonal shape and climbing fiber input, develop differentially between nodular and anterior PC populations. Although all PCs show a particularly rapid development in the second postnatal week, anterior PCs typically have a prolonged physiological and dendritic maturation. In line herewith, younger mice exhibit attenuated anterior-dependent eyeblink conditioning, but faster nodular-dependent compensatory eye movement adaptation. Our results indicate that specific cerebellar regions have unique developmental timelines which match with their related, specific forms of cerebellum-dependent behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Catarina Osório
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Joshua J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Bilian Xiong
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Marit Runge
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Henk-Jan Boele
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands.,Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton, United States
| | - Freek E Hoebeek
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands.,Department for Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center and Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, Netherlands
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11
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Feng M, Xiang B, Fan L, Wang Q, Xu W, Xiang H. Interrogating autonomic peripheral nervous system neurons with viruses - A literature review. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 346:108958. [PMID: 32979424 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
How rich functionality emerges from the rather invariant structural architecture of the peripheral autonomic nervous system remains one of the major mysteries in neuroscience. The high incidence of patients with neural circuit-related autonomic nervous system diseases highlights the importance of fundamental research, among others with neurotracing methods, into autonomic neuron functionality. Due to the emergence of neurotropic virus-based tracing techniques in recent years the access to neuronal connectivity in the peripheral autonomic nervous system has greatly been improved. This review is devoted to the anatomical distribution of neural circuits in the periphery of the autonomous nervous system and to the interaction between the autonomic nervous system and vital peripheral organs or tissues. The experimental evidence available at present has greatly expanded our understanding of autonomic peripheral nervous system neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maohui Feng
- Department of Oncology, Wuhan Peritoneal Cancer Clinical Medical Research Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Biological Behaviors and Hubei Cancer Clinical Study Center, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Boqi Xiang
- University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Li Fan
- Department of Orthopedics, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, PR China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, PR China
| | - Weiguo Xu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, PR China
| | - HongBing Xiang
- Department Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, PR China.
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12
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Krupa P, Siddiqui AM, Grahn PJ, Islam R, Chen BK, Madigan NN, Windebank AJ, Lavrov IA. The Translesional Spinal Network and Its Reorganization after Spinal Cord Injury. Neuroscientist 2020; 28:163-179. [PMID: 33089762 DOI: 10.1177/1073858420966276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Evidence from preclinical and clinical research suggest that neuromodulation technologies can facilitate the sublesional spinal networks, isolated from supraspinal commands after spinal cord injury (SCI), by reestablishing the levels of excitability and enabling descending motor signals via residual connections. Herein, we evaluate available evidence that sublesional and supralesional spinal circuits could form a translesional spinal network after SCI. We further discuss evidence of translesional network reorganization after SCI in the presence of sensory inputs during motor training. In this review, we evaluate potential mechanisms that underlie translesional circuitry reorganization during neuromodulation and rehabilitation in order to enable motor functions after SCI. We discuss the potential of neuromodulation technologies to engage various components that comprise the translesional network, their functional recovery after SCI, and the implications of the concept of translesional network in development of future neuromodulation, rehabilitation, and neuroprosthetics technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Krupa
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic.,Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | - Peter J Grahn
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Riazul Islam
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Bingkun K Chen
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | | | - Igor A Lavrov
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
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13
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Hernández RG, De Zeeuw CI, Zhang R, Yakusheva TA, Blazquez PM. Translation information processing is regulated by protein kinase C-dependent mechanism in Purkinje cells in murine posterior vermis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:17348-58. [PMID: 32636261 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2002177117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellar posterior vermis generates an estimation of our motion (translation) and orientation (tilt) in space using cues originating from semicircular canals and otolith organs. Theoretical work has laid out the basic computations necessary for this signal transformation, but details on the cellular loci and mechanisms responsible are lacking. Using a multicomponent modeling approach, we show that canal and otolith information are spatially and temporally matched in mouse posterior vermis Purkinje cells and that Purkinje cell responses combine translation and tilt information. Purkinje cell-specific inhibition of protein kinase C decreased and phase-shifted the translation component of Purkinje cell responses, but did not affect the tilt component. Our findings suggest that translation and tilt signals reach Purkinje cells via separate information pathways and that protein kinase C-dependent mechanisms regulate translation information processing in cerebellar cortex output neurons.
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14
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Aoki S, Coulon P, Ruigrok TJH. Multizonal Cerebellar Influence Over Sensorimotor Areas of the Rat Cerebral Cortex. Cereb Cortex 2020; 29:598-614. [PMID: 29300895 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebral cortex requires cerebellar input for optimizing sensorimotor processing. However, how the sensorimotor cortex uses cerebellar information is far from understood. One critical and unanswered question is how cerebellar functional entities (zones or modules) are connected to distinct parts of the sensorimotor cortices. Here, we utilized retrograde transneuronal infection of rabies virus (RABV) to study the organization of connections from the cerebellar cortex to M1, M2, and S1 of the rat cerebral cortex. RABV was co-injected with cholera toxin β-subunit (CTb) into each of these cortical regions and a survival time of 66-70 h allowed for third-order retrograde RABV infection of Purkinje cells. CTb served to identify the injection site. RABV+ Purkinje cells throughout cerebellar zones were identified by reference to the cerebellar zebrin pattern. All injections, including those into S1, resulted in multiple, zonally arranged, strips of RABV+ Purkinje cells. M1 injections were characterized by input from Purkinje cells in the vermal X-zone, medial paravermis (C1- and Cx-zones), and lateral hemisphere (D2-zone); M2 receives input from D2- and C3-zones; connections to S1 originate from X-, Cx-, C3-, and D2-zones. We hypothesize that individual domains of the sensorimotor cortex require information from a specific combination of cerebellar modules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Aoki
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.,Present address: Neurobiology Research Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Patrice Coulon
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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15
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Berger DJ, Masciullo M, Molinari M, Lacquaniti F, d'Avella A. Does the cerebellum shape the spatiotemporal organization of muscle patterns? Insights from subjects with cerebellar ataxias. J Neurophysiol 2020; 123:1691-1710. [PMID: 32159425 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00657.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the cerebellum in motor control has been investigated extensively, but its contribution to the muscle pattern organization underlying goal-directed movements is still not fully understood. Muscle synergies may be used to characterize multimuscle pattern organization irrespective of time (spatial synergies), in time irrespective of the muscles (temporal synergies), and both across muscles and in time (spatiotemporal synergies). The decomposition of muscle patterns as combinations of different types of muscle synergies offers the possibility to identify specific changes due to neurological lesions. In this study, we recorded electromyographic activity from 13 shoulder and arm muscles in subjects with cerebellar ataxias (CA) and in age-matched healthy subjects (HS) while they performed reaching movements in multiple directions. We assessed whether cerebellar damage affects the organization of muscle patterns by extracting different types of muscle synergies from the muscle patterns of each HS and using these synergies to reconstruct the muscle patterns of all other participants. We found that CA muscle patterns could be accurately captured only by spatial muscle synergies of HS. In contrast, there were significant differences in the reconstruction R2 values for both spatiotemporal and temporal synergies, with an interaction between the two synergy types indicating a larger difference for spatiotemporal synergies. Moreover, the reconstruction quality using spatiotemporal synergies correlated with the severity of impairment. These results indicate that cerebellar damage affects the temporal and spatiotemporal organization, but not the spatial organization, of the muscle patterns, suggesting that the cerebellum plays a key role in shaping their spatiotemporal organization.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In recent studies, the decomposition of muscle activity patterns has revealed a modular organization of the motor commands. We show, for the first time, that muscle patterns of subjects with cerebellar damage share with healthy controls spatial, but not temporal and spatiotemporal, modules. Moreover, changes in spatiotemporal organization characterize the severity of the subject's impairment. These results suggest that the cerebellum has a specific role in shaping the spatiotemporal organization of the muscle patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise J Berger
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Systems Medicine and Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Marco Molinari
- Neuro-Robot Rehabilitation Lab, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Lacquaniti
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Systems Medicine and Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea d'Avella
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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16
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Miterko LN, Baker KB, Beckinghausen J, Bradnam LV, Cheng MY, Cooperrider J, DeLong MR, Gornati SV, Hallett M, Heck DH, Hoebeek FE, Kouzani AZ, Kuo SH, Louis ED, Machado A, Manto M, McCambridge AB, Nitsche MA, Taib NOB, Popa T, Tanaka M, Timmann D, Steinberg GK, Wang EH, Wichmann T, Xie T, Sillitoe RV. Consensus Paper: Experimental Neurostimulation of the Cerebellum. Cerebellum 2019; 18:1064-1097. [PMID: 31165428 PMCID: PMC6867990 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-019-01041-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum is best known for its role in controlling motor behaviors. However, recent work supports the view that it also influences non-motor behaviors. The contribution of the cerebellum towards different brain functions is underscored by its involvement in a diverse and increasing number of neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions including ataxia, dystonia, essential tremor, Parkinson's disease (PD), epilepsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, autism spectrum disorders, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia. Although there are no cures for these conditions, cerebellar stimulation is quickly gaining attention for symptomatic alleviation, as cerebellar circuitry has arisen as a promising target for invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation. This consensus paper brings together experts from the fields of neurophysiology, neurology, and neurosurgery to discuss recent efforts in using the cerebellum as a therapeutic intervention. We report on the most advanced techniques for manipulating cerebellar circuits in humans and animal models and define key hurdles and questions for moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren N Miterko
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Department of Neuroscience, Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Kenneth B Baker
- Neurological Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Jaclyn Beckinghausen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Department of Neuroscience, Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Lynley V Bradnam
- Department of Exercise Science, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Michelle Y Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 1201 Welch Road, MSLS P352, Stanford, CA, 94305-5487, USA
| | - Jessica Cooperrider
- Neurological Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Mahlon R DeLong
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Simona V Gornati
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3015 AA, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mark Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, NINDS, NIH, Building 10, Room 7D37, 10 Center Dr MSC 1428, Bethesda, MD, 20892-1428, USA
| | - Detlef H Heck
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 855 Monroe Ave, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Freek E Hoebeek
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3015 AA, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- NIDOD Department, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Abbas Z Kouzani
- School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, 3216, Australia
| | - Sheng-Han Kuo
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Elan D Louis
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale School of Public Health, Center for Neuroepidemiology and Clinical Research, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Andre Machado
- Neurological Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Mario Manto
- Service de Neurologie, CHU-Charleroi, 6000, Charleroi, Belgium
- Service des Neurosciences, Université de Mons, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Alana B McCambridge
- Graduate School of Health, Physiotherapy, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Michael A Nitsche
- Department of Psychology and Neurosiences, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Hospital Bergmannsheil, Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Traian Popa
- Human Motor Control Section, NINDS, NIH, Building 10, Room 7D37, 10 Center Dr MSC 1428, Bethesda, MD, 20892-1428, USA
- Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics (CNP) and Brain Mind Institute (BMI), Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion, Switzerland
| | - Masaki Tanaka
- Department of Physiology, Hokkaido University School of Medicine, Sapporo, 060-8638, Japan
| | - Dagmar Timmann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Gary K Steinberg
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 1201 Welch Road, MSLS P352, Stanford, CA, 94305-5487, USA
- R281 Department of Neurosurgery, Stanfod University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Eric H Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 1201 Welch Road, MSLS P352, Stanford, CA, 94305-5487, USA
| | - Thomas Wichmann
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Tao Xie
- Department of Neurology, University of Chicago, 5841 S. Maryland Avenue, MC 2030, Chicago, IL, 60637-1470, USA
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Department of Neuroscience, Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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17
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Aoki S, Smith JB, Li H, Yan X, Igarashi M, Coulon P, Wickens JR, Ruigrok TJH, Jin X. An open cortico-basal ganglia loop allows limbic control over motor output via the nigrothalamic pathway. eLife 2019; 8:e49995. [PMID: 31490123 PMCID: PMC6731092 DOI: 10.7554/elife.49995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops are largely conceived as parallel circuits that process limbic, associative, and sensorimotor information separately. Whether and how these functionally distinct loops interact remains unclear. Combining genetic and viral approaches, we systemically mapped the limbic and motor cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops in rodents. Despite largely closed loops within each functional domain, we discovered a unidirectional influence of the limbic over the motor loop via ventral striatum-substantia nigra (SNr)-motor thalamus circuitry. Slice electrophysiology verifies that the projection from ventral striatum functionally inhibits nigro-thalamic SNr neurons. In vivo optogenetic stimulation of ventral or dorsolateral striatum to SNr pathway modulates activity in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and motor cortex (M1), respectively. However, whereas the dorsolateral striatum-SNr pathway exerts little impact on mPFC, activation of the ventral striatum-SNr pathway effectively alters M1 activity. These results demonstrate an open cortico-basal ganglia loop whereby limbic information could modulate motor output through ventral striatum control of M1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Aoki
- Molecular Neurobiology LaboratorySalk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaUnited States
- Neurobiology Research UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and TechnologyOkinawaJapan
- Department of NeuroscienceErasmus Medical Center RotterdamRotterdamNetherlands
- Japan Society for the Promotion of SciencesTokyoJapan
| | - Jared B Smith
- Molecular Neurobiology LaboratorySalk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaUnited States
| | - Hao Li
- Molecular Neurobiology LaboratorySalk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaUnited States
| | - Xunyi Yan
- Molecular Neurobiology LaboratorySalk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaUnited States
| | - Masakazu Igarashi
- Neurobiology Research UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and TechnologyOkinawaJapan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of SciencesTokyoJapan
| | - Patrice Coulon
- Institut des Neurosciences de la TimoneCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseilleFrance
| | - Jeffery R Wickens
- Neurobiology Research UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and TechnologyOkinawaJapan
| | - Tom JH Ruigrok
- Department of NeuroscienceErasmus Medical Center RotterdamRotterdamNetherlands
| | - Xin Jin
- Molecular Neurobiology LaboratorySalk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaUnited States
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18
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Wu B, Blot FG, Wong AB, Osório C, Adolfs Y, Pasterkamp RJ, Hartmann J, Becker EB, Boele HJ, De Zeeuw CI, Schonewille M. TRPC3 is a major contributor to functional heterogeneity of cerebellar Purkinje cells. eLife 2019; 8:45590. [PMID: 31486767 PMCID: PMC6733575 DOI: 10.7554/elife.45590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the canonical homogeneous character of its organization, the cerebellum plays differential computational roles in distinct sensorimotor behaviors. Previously, we showed that Purkinje cell (PC) activity differs between zebrin-negative (Z–) and zebrin-positive (Z+) modules (Zhou et al., 2014). Here, using gain-of-function and loss-of-function mouse models, we show that transient receptor potential cation channel C3 (TRPC3) controls the simple spike activity of Z–, but not Z+ PCs. In addition, TRPC3 regulates complex spike rate and their interaction with simple spikes, exclusively in Z– PCs. At the behavioral level, TRPC3 loss-of-function mice show impaired eyeblink conditioning, which is related to Z– modules, whereas compensatory eye movement adaptation, linked to Z+ modules, is intact. Together, our results indicate that TRPC3 is a major contributor to the cellular heterogeneity that introduces distinct physiological properties in PCs, conjuring functional heterogeneity in cerebellar sensorimotor integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Wu
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - François Gc Blot
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Aaron Benson Wong
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Catarina Osório
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Youri Adolfs
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - R Jeroen Pasterkamp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jana Hartmann
- Institute of Neuroscience, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Esther Be Becker
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Henk-Jan Boele
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Chris I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands.,Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Dutch Academy for Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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20
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Bouvier G, Aljadeff J, Clopath C, Bimbard C, Ranft J, Blot A, Nadal JP, Brunel N, Hakim V, Barbour B. Cerebellar learning using perturbations. eLife 2018; 7:31599. [PMID: 30418871 PMCID: PMC6231762 DOI: 10.7554/elife.31599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum aids the learning of fast, coordinated movements. According to current consensus, erroneously active parallel fibre synapses are depressed by complex spikes signalling movement errors. However, this theory cannot solve the credit assignment problem of processing a global movement evaluation into multiple cell-specific error signals. We identify a possible implementation of an algorithm solving this problem, whereby spontaneous complex spikes perturb ongoing movements, create eligibility traces and signal error changes guiding plasticity. Error changes are extracted by adaptively cancelling the average error. This framework, stochastic gradient descent with estimated global errors (SGDEGE), predicts synaptic plasticity rules that apparently contradict the current consensus but were supported by plasticity experiments in slices from mice under conditions designed to be physiological, highlighting the sensitivity of plasticity studies to experimental conditions. We analyse the algorithm’s convergence and capacity. Finally, we suggest SGDEGE may also operate in the basal ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Bouvier
- Institut de biologie de l'École normale supérieure (IBENS), École normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Johnatan Aljadeff
- Departments of Statistics and Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
| | - Claudia Clopath
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Célian Bimbard
- Institut de biologie de l'École normale supérieure (IBENS), École normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Jonas Ranft
- Institut de biologie de l'École normale supérieure (IBENS), École normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Antonin Blot
- Institut de biologie de l'École normale supérieure (IBENS), École normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Nadal
- Laboratoire de Physique Statistique, École normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.,Centre d'Analyse et de Mathématique Sociales, EHESS, CNRS, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Brunel
- Departments of Statistics and Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
| | - Vincent Hakim
- Laboratoire de Physique Statistique, École normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Boris Barbour
- Institut de biologie de l'École normale supérieure (IBENS), École normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
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21
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Apps R, Hawkes R, Aoki S, Bengtsson F, Brown AM, Chen G, Ebner TJ, Isope P, Jörntell H, Lackey EP, Lawrenson C, Lumb B, Schonewille M, Sillitoe RV, Spaeth L, Sugihara I, Valera A, Voogd J, Wylie DR, Ruigrok TJH. Cerebellar Modules and Their Role as Operational Cerebellar Processing Units: A Consensus paper [corrected]. Cerebellum 2018; 17:654-682. [PMID: 29876802 PMCID: PMC6132822 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-018-0952-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The compartmentalization of the cerebellum into modules is often used to discuss its function. What, exactly, can be considered a module, how do they operate, can they be subdivided and do they act individually or in concert are only some of the key questions discussed in this consensus paper. Experts studying cerebellar compartmentalization give their insights on the structure and function of cerebellar modules, with the aim of providing an up-to-date review of the extensive literature on this subject. Starting with an historical perspective indicating that the basis of the modular organization is formed by matching olivocorticonuclear connectivity, this is followed by consideration of anatomical and chemical modular boundaries, revealing a relation between anatomical, chemical, and physiological borders. In addition, the question is asked what the smallest operational unit of the cerebellum might be. Furthermore, it has become clear that chemical diversity of Purkinje cells also results in diversity of information processing between cerebellar modules. An additional important consideration is the relation between modular compartmentalization and the organization of the mossy fiber system, resulting in the concept of modular plasticity. Finally, examination of cerebellar output patterns suggesting cooperation between modules and recent work on modular aspects of emotional behavior are discussed. Despite the general consensus that the cerebellum has a modular organization, many questions remain. The authors hope that this joint review will inspire future cerebellar research so that we are better able to understand how this brain structure makes its vital contribution to behavior in its most general form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Apps
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Richard Hawkes
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Sho Aoki
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, Onna, Japan
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Fredrik Bengtsson
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Amanda M. Brown
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN USA
| | - Timothy J. Ebner
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN USA
| | - Philippe Isope
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Henrik Jörntell
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Elizabeth P. Lackey
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Charlotte Lawrenson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Bridget Lumb
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Martijn Schonewille
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Roy V. Sillitoe
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX USA
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX USA
| | - Ludovic Spaeth
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Izumi Sugihara
- Department of Systems Neurophysiology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Antoine Valera
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jan Voogd
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Douglas R. Wylie
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB Canada
| | - Tom J. H. Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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22
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Craciun I, Gutiérrez-Ibáñez C, Corfield JR, Hurd PL, Wylie DR. Topographic Organization of Inferior Olive Projections to the Zebrin II Stripes in the Pigeon Cerebellar Uvula. Front Neuroanat 2018; 12:18. [PMID: 29599710 PMCID: PMC5862790 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2018.00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was aimed at mapping the organization of the projections from the inferior olive (IO) to the ventral uvula in pigeons. The uvula is part of the vestibulocerebellum (VbC), which is involved in the processing of optic flow resulting from self-motion. As in other areas of the cerebellum, the uvula is organized into sagittal zones, which is apparent with respect to afferent inputs, the projection patterns of Purkinje cell (PC) efferents, the response properties of PCs and the expression of molecular markers such as zebrin II (ZII). ZII is heterogeneously expressed such that there are sagittal stripes of PCs with high ZII expression (ZII+), alternating with sagittal stripes of PCs with little to no ZII expression (ZII−). We have previously demonstrated that a ZII+/− stripe pair in the uvula constitutes a functional unit, insofar as the complex spike activity (CSA) of all PCs within a ZII+/− stripe pair respond to the same type of optic flow stimuli. In the present study we sought to map the climbing fiber (CF) inputs from the IO to the ZII+ and ZII− stripes in the uvula. We injected fluorescent Cholera Toxin B (CTB) of different colors (red and green) into ZII+ and ZII− bands of functional stripe pair. Injections in the ZII+ and ZII− bands resulted in retrograde labeling of spatially separate, but adjacent regions in the IO. Thus, although a ZII+/− stripe pair represents a functional unit in the pigeon uvula, CF inputs to the ZII+ and ZII− stripes of a unit arise from separate regions of the IO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iulia Craciun
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | | | - Jeremy R Corfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, MD, United States
| | - Peter L Hurd
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Douglas R Wylie
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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23
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Khalki L, Sadlaoud K, Lerond J, Coq JO, Brezun JM, Vinay L, Coulon P, Bras H. Changes in innervation of lumbar motoneurons and organization of premotor network following training of transected adult rats. Exp Neurol 2018; 299:1-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Wild BM, Mohan R, Morris R. Rat motor neurons caudal to a rubrospinal tract (RST) transection remain viable. Neuroscience 2017; 364:157-163. [PMID: 28918261 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In the rat, the rubrospinal tract (RST) is a descending motor pathway involved in the production of skilled reaching movement. The RST originates in the red nucleus in the midbrain and runs down the spinal cord in the lateral most aspect of the dorsolateral funiculus (DLF). The RST makes monosynaptic contact with interneurons within the intermediate laminae of the cord, however a contingent of RST axons constitutes direct supraspinal input for spinal cord motor neurons. The current study investigated the effects of unilateral RST transection at cervical levels C3-4 on the population of motor neurons in both spinal segments C5-6 and L2-3. The total number of large, medium and small motor neurons in these segments was estimated with stereological techniques in both ventral horns at 1, 3, 7 and 14days post-injury. In both spinal cord segments under investigation, no change was detected in mean number of motor neurons over time, in either ventral horn. That the loss of direct supraspinal input resulting from the RST transection does not affect the viability of motor neurons caudal to the injury indicates that these neurons have the potential to be re-innervated, should the RST injury be repaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M Wild
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Science, UNSW Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Rahul Mohan
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Science, UNSW Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Renée Morris
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Science, UNSW Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
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Wylie DR, Gutiérrez-Ibáñez C, Corfield JR, Craciun I, Graham DJ, Hurd PL. Inferior olivary projection to the zebrin II stripes in lobule IXcd of the pigeon flocculus: A retrograde tracing study. J Comp Neurol 2017. [PMID: 28649766 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Zebrin II (ZII; a.k.a. aldolase C) is expressed heterogeneously in Purkinje cells (PCs) such that there are sagittal stripes of high expression (ZII+) interdigitated with stripes of little or no expression (ZII-). The pigeon flocculus receives visual-optokinetic information and is important for generating compensatory eye movements. It consists of 4 sagittal zones based on PC complex spike activity (CSA) in response to rotational optokinetic stimuli. There are two zones where CSA responds best to rotation about the vertical axis (VA), interdigitated with two zones where CSA responds best to rotation about an horizontal axis (HA). These optokinetic zones relate to the ZII stripes in folium IXcd of the flocculus, such that an optokinetic zone spans a ZII+/- pair: the HA zones span the P5+/- and P7+/- ZII stripe pairs, whereas the VA zones correspond to ZII stripe pairs P4+/- and P6+/-. In the present study, we used fluorescent retrograde tracing to determine the olivary inputs to the ZII+ and ZII- stripes within the functional pairs. We found that separate but adjacent areas of the medial column of the inferior olive (mcIO) project to the ZII+ and ZII- stripes within each of the functional pairs. Thus, although a ZII+/- stripe pair represents a functional unit in the pigeon flocculus insofar as the CSA of all PCs in the stripe pair encodes similar sensory information, the olivary inputs to the ZII+ and ZII- stripes arise from different, although adjacent, regions of the mcIO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas R Wylie
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2E9
| | | | - Jeremy R Corfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
| | - Iulia Craciun
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2E9
| | - David J Graham
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2E9
| | - Peter L Hurd
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2E9
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26
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Abstract
In the last decade, the interplay between basal ganglia and cerebellar functions has been increasingly advocated to explain their joint operation in both normal and pathological conditions. Yet, insight into the neuroanatomical basis of this interplay between both subcortical structures remains sparse and is mainly derived from work in primates. Here, in rodents, we have studied the existence of a potential disynaptic connection between the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and the cerebellar cortex as has been demonstrated earlier for the primate. A mixture of unmodified rabies virus (RABV: CVS 11) and cholera toxin B-subunit (CTb) was injected at places in the posterior cerebellar cortex of nine rats. The survival time was chosen to allow for disynaptic retrograde transneuronal infection of RABV. We examined the STN for neurons infected with RABV in all nine cases and related the results with the location of the RABV/CTb injection site, which ranged from the vermis of lobule VII, to the paravermis and hemispheres of the paramedian lobule and crus 2a. We found that cases with injection sites in the vermis of lobule VII showed prominent RABV labeling in the STN. In contrast, almost no subthalamic labeling was noted in cases with paravermal or hemispheral injection sites. We show circumstantial evidence that not only the pontine nuclei but also the pedunculotegmental nucleus may act as the intermediary in the connection from STN to cerebellar cortex. This finding implies that in the rat the STN links disynaptically to the vermal part of lobule VII of the cerebellar cortex, without any major involvement of the cerebellar areas that are linked to sensorimotor functions. As vermal lobule VII recently has been shown to process disynaptic input from the retrosplenial and orbitofrontal cortices, we hypothesize that in the rat the subthalamic input to cerebellar function might be used to influence more prominently non-motor functions of the cerebellum than motor functions. This latter aspect seems to contradict the primate results and could point to a more elaborate interaction between basal ganglia and cerebellum in more demanding motor tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saad Jwair
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Patrice Coulon
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS Marseille, France
| | - Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Netherlands
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27
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Ruigrok TJH, van Touw S, Coulon P. Caveats in Transneuronal Tracing with Unmodified Rabies Virus: An Evaluation of Aberrant Results Using a Nearly Perfect Tracing Technique. Front Neural Circuits 2016; 10:46. [PMID: 27462206 PMCID: PMC4939302 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2016.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Apart from the genetically engineered, modified, strains of rabies virus (RABV), unmodified ‘fixed’ virus strains of RABV, such as the ‘French’ subtype of CVS11, are used to examine synaptically connected networks in the brain. This technique has been shown to have all the prerequisite characteristics for ideal tracing as it does not metabolically affect infected neurons within the time span of the experiment, it is transferred transneuronally in one direction only and to all types of neurons presynaptic to the infected neuron, number of transneuronal steps can be precisely controlled by survival time and it is easily detectable with a sensitive technique. Here, using the ‘French’ CVS 11 subtype of RABV in Wistar rats, we show that some of these characteristics may not be as perfect as previously indicated. Using injection of RABV in hind limb muscles, we show that RABV-infected spinal motoneurons may already show lysis 1 or 2 days after infection. Using longer survival times we were able to establish that Purkinje cells may succumb approximately 3 days after infection. In addition, some neurons seem to resist infection, as we noted that the number of RABV-infected inferior olivary neurons did not progress in the same rate as other infected neurons. Furthermore, in our hands, we noted that infection of Purkinje cells did not result in expected transneuronal labeling of cell types that are presynaptic to Purkinje cells such as molecular layer interneurons and granule cells. However, these cell types were readily infected when RABV was injected directly in the cerebellar cortex. Conversely, neurons in the cerebellar nuclei that project to the inferior olive did not take up RABV when this was injected in the inferior olive, whereas these cells could be infected with RABV via a transneuronal route. These results suggest that viral entry from the extracellular space depends on other factors or mechanisms than those used for retrograde transneuronal transfer. We conclude that transneuronal tracing with RABV may result in unexpected results, as not all properties of RABV seem to be ubiquitously valid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sven van Touw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Patrice Coulon
- Equipe P3M - UMR 7298, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS Marseille, France
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28
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Mehta P, Premkumar B, Morris R. Production of high quality brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) RNA from isolated populations of rat spinal cord motor neurons obtained by Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM). Neurosci Lett 2016; 627:132-8. [PMID: 27260986 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.05.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) is composed of multiple cellular elements, making it challenging to segregate one particular cell type to study their gene expression profile. For instance, as motor neurons represent only 5-10% of the total cell population of the spinal cord, meaningful transcriptional analysis on these neurons is almost impossible to achieve from homogenized spinal cord tissue. A major challenge faced by scientists is to obtain good quality RNA from small amounts of starting material. In this paper, we used Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM) techniques to identify and isolate spinal cord motor neurons. The present analysis revealed that perfusion with paraformaldehyde (PFA) does not alter RNA quality. RNA integrity numbers (RINs) of tissue samples from rubrospinal tract (RST)-transected, intact spinal cord or from whole spinal cord homogenate were all above 8, which indicates intact, high-quality RNA. Levels of mRNA for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) or for its tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) were not affected by rubrospinal tract (RST) transection, a surgical procedure that deprive motor neurons from one of their main supraspinal input. The isolation of pure populations of neurons with LCM techniques allows for robust transcriptional characterization that cannot be achieved with spinal cord homogenates. Such preparations of pure population of motor neurons will provide valuable tools to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying spinal cord injury and neuromuscular diseases. In the near future, LCM techniques might be instrumental to the success of gene therapy for these debilitating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prachi Mehta
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Brian Premkumar
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Renée Morris
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia.
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29
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Abstract
Otto Deiters (1834-1863) was a promising neuroscientist who, like Ferdinando Rossi, died too young. His notes and drawings were posthumously published by Max Schultze in the book "Untersuchungen über Gehirn und Rückenmark." The book is well-known for his dissections of nerve cells, showing the presence of multiple dendrites and a single axon. Deiters also made beautiful drawings of microscopical sections through the spinal cord and the brain stem, the latter showing the lateral vestibular nucleus which received his name. This nucleus, however, should be considered as a cerebellar nucleus because it receives Purkinje cell axons from the vermal B zone in its dorsal portion. Afferents from the labyrinth occur in its ventral part. The nucleus gives rise to the lateral vestibulospinal tract. The cerebellar B module of which Deiters' nucleus is the target nucleus was used in many innovative studies of the cerebellum on the zonal organization of the olivocerebellar projection, its somatotopical organization, its microzones, and its role in posture and movement that are the subject of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Voogd
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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30
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Morris R, Whishaw IQ. A Proposal for a Rat Model of Spinal Cord Injury Featuring the Rubrospinal Tract and its Contributions to Locomotion and Skilled Hand Movement. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:5. [PMID: 26858587 PMCID: PMC4728831 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury and repair is a dynamic field of research. The development of reliable animal models of traumatic spinal cord injury has been invaluable in providing a wealth of information regarding the pathological consequences and recovery potential of this condition. A number of injury models have been instrumental in the elaboration and the validation of therapeutic interventions aimed at reversing this once thought permanent condition. In general, the study of spinal cord injury and repair is made difficult by both its anatomical complexity and the complexity of the behavior it mediates. In this perspective paper, we suggest a new model for spinal cord investigation that simplifies problems related to both the functional and anatomical complexity of the spinal cord. We begin by reviewing and contrasting some of the most common animal models used for investigating spinal cord dysfunction. We then consider two widely used models of spinal deficit-recovery, one involving the corticospinal tracts (CTS) and the other the rubrospinal tract (RST). We argue that the simplicity of the function of the RST makes it a useful model for studying the cord and its functional repair. We also reflect on two obstacles that have hindered progress in the pre-clinical field, delaying translation to the clinical setup. The first is recovery of function without reconnection of the transected descending fibers and the second is the use of behavioral paradigms that are not under the control of the descending fiber pathway under scrutiny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée Morris
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, The University of New South Wales Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Ian Q Whishaw
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge Lethbridge, AB, Canada
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31
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White JJ, Arancillo M, King A, Lin T, Miterko LN, Gebre SA, Sillitoe RV. Pathogenesis of severe ataxia and tremor without the typical signs of neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 86:86-98. [PMID: 26586559 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurological diseases are especially devastating when they involve neurodegeneration. Neuronal destruction is widespread in cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's and regionally localized in motor disorders such as Parkinson's, Huntington's, and ataxia. But, surprisingly, the onset and progression of these diseases can occur without neurodegeneration. To understand the origins of diseases that do not have an obvious neuropathology, we tested how loss of CAR8, a regulator of IP3R1-mediated Ca(2+)-signaling, influences cerebellar circuit formation and neural function as movement deteriorates. We found that faulty molecular patterning, which shapes functional circuits called zones, leads to alterations in cerebellar wiring and Purkinje cell activity, but not to degeneration. Rescuing Purkinje cell function improved movement and reducing their Ca(2+) influx eliminated ectopic zones. Our findings in Car8(wdl) mutant mice unveil a pathophysiological mechanism that may operate broadly to impact motor and non-motor conditions that do not involve degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J White
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Marife Arancillo
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Annesha King
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Tao Lin
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lauren N Miterko
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Samrawit A Gebre
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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32
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Hoogland TM, De Gruijl JR, Witter L, Canto CB, De Zeeuw CI. Role of Synchronous Activation of Cerebellar Purkinje Cell Ensembles in Multi-joint Movement Control. Curr Biol 2015; 25:1157-65. [PMID: 25843032 PMCID: PMC4425462 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is a longstanding question in neuroscience how elaborate multi-joint movements are coordinated coherently. Microzones of cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) are thought to mediate this coordination by controlling the timing of particular motor domains. However, it remains to be elucidated to what extent motor coordination deficits can be correlated with abnormalities in coherent activity within these microzones and to what extent artificially evoked synchronous activity within PC ensembles can elicit multi-joint motor behavior. To study PC ensemble correlates of limb, trunk, and tail movements, we developed a transparent disk treadmill that allows quantitative readout of locomotion and posture parameters in head-fixed mice and simultaneous cellular-resolution imaging and/or optogenetic manipulation. We show that PC ensembles in the ataxic and dystonic mouse mutant tottering have a reduced level of complex spike co-activation, which is delayed relative to movement onset and co-occurs with prolonged swing duration and reduced phase coupling of limb movements as well as with enlarged deflections of body-axis and tail movements. Using optogenetics to increase simple spike rate in PC ensembles, we find that preferred locomotion and posture patterns can be elicited or perturbed depending on the behavioral state. At rest, preferred sequences of limb movements can be elicited, whereas during locomotion, preferred gait-inhibition patterns are evoked. Our findings indicate that synchronous activation of PC ensembles can facilitate initiation and coordination of limb and trunk movements, presumably by tuning downstream systems involved in the execution of behavioral patterns. tg/tg mice show affected swing duration and phase coupling of limb movements PCs in ataxic tg/tg mice show delayed and reduced complex spike (CS) co-activation At rest, simple spike (SS) co-activation can elicit preferred locomotion sequences During locomotion, SS co-activation can be correlated with gait-inhibition patterns
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Affiliation(s)
- Tycho M Hoogland
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Jornt R De Gruijl
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Laurens Witter
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Cathrin B Canto
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Chris I De Zeeuw
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, Erasmus MC, 3015 GE Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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Theme 8 human cell biology and pathology. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Frontotemporal Degener 2014; 15 Suppl 1:152-60. [PMID: 25382838 DOI: 10.3109/21678421.2014.960185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Aoki S, Sato Y, Yanagihara D. Effect of inactivation of the intermediate cerebellum on overground locomotion in the rat: a comparative study of the anterior and posterior lobes. Neurosci Lett 2014; 576:22-7. [PMID: 24887582 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The importance of the cerebellum in control of locomotion is demonstrated by the ataxic gait of cerebellar patients. The intermediate cerebellum contains somatotopical representations for forelimbs and hindlimbs in both anterior and posterior lobes. However, it is not known whether these separate regions have discrete roles in control of limb movements during locomotion. Here we compared the effect of muscimol-induced inactivation of the anterior or posterior intermediate cerebellum on limb movements in walking rats. Inactivation of the anterior intermediate cerebellum had clear effects on limb movements during overground locomotion, resulting in excessive toe elevation and hyperflexion of joints in the swing phase. Inactivation of the posterior region resulted in similar but less pronounced deficits. Postural defects were not present in either group of rats. These findings suggest that the intermediate cerebellum of the anterior lobe has a greater influence on the ability to control limb movements during overground locomotion than the posterior lobe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Aoki
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan; Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, 8 Ichibancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8472, Japan
| | - Yamato Sato
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
| | - Dai Yanagihara
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan; Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Corporation, 5 Sanbancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0075, Japan.
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Levine AJ, Hinckley CA, Hilde KL, Driscoll SP, Poon TH, Montgomery JM, Pfaff SL. Identification of a cellular node for motor control pathways. Nat Neurosci 2014; 17:586-93. [PMID: 24609464 DOI: 10.1038/nn.3675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The rich behavioral repertoire of animals is encoded in the CNS as a set of motorneuron activation patterns, also called 'motor synergies'. However, the neurons that orchestrate these motor programs as well as their cellular properties and connectivity are poorly understood. Here we identify a population of molecularly defined motor synergy encoder (MSE) neurons in the mouse spinal cord that may represent a central node in neural pathways for voluntary and reflexive movement. This population receives direct inputs from the motor cortex and sensory pathways and, in turn, has monosynaptic outputs to spinal motorneurons. Optical stimulation of MSE neurons drove reliable patterns of activity in multiple motor groups, and we found that the evoked motor patterns varied on the basis of the rostrocaudal location of the stimulated MSE. We speculate that these neurons comprise a cellular network for encoding coordinated motor output programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel J Levine
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [3]
| | - Christopher A Hinckley
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [3]
| | - Kathryn L Hilde
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Shawn P Driscoll
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Tiffany H Poon
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Jessica M Montgomery
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Samuel L Pfaff
- 1] Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
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Abstract
The cerebellum regulates complex movements and is also implicated in cognitive tasks, and cerebellar dysfunction is consequently associated not only with movement disorders, but also with conditions like autism and dyslexia. How information is encoded by specific cerebellar firing patterns remains debated, however. A central question is how the cerebellar cortex transmits its integrated output to the cerebellar nuclei via GABAergic synapses from Purkinje neurons. Possible answers come from accumulating evidence that subsets of Purkinje cells synchronize their firing during behaviors that require the cerebellum. Consistent with models predicting that coherent activity of inhibitory networks has the capacity to dictate firing patterns of target neurons, recent experimental work supports the idea that inhibitory synchrony may regulate the response of cerebellar nuclear cells to Purkinje inputs, owing to the interplay between unusually fast inhibitory synaptic responses and high rates of intrinsic activity. Data from multiple laboratories lead to a working hypothesis that synchronous inhibitory input from Purkinje cells can set the timing and rate of action potentials produced by cerebellar nuclear cells, thereby relaying information out of the cerebellum. If so, then changing spatiotemporal patterns of Purkinje activity would allow different subsets of inhibitory neurons to control cerebellar output at different times. Here we explore the evidence for and against the idea that a synchrony code defines, at least in part, the input–output function between the cerebellar cortex and nuclei. We consider the literature on the existence of simple spike synchrony, convergence of Purkinje neurons onto nuclear neurons, and intrinsic properties of nuclear neurons that contribute to responses to inhibition. Finally, we discuss factors that may disrupt or modulate a synchrony code and describe the potential contributions of inhibitory synchrony to other motor circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail L Person
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora, CO, USA
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Pan F, Wei HF, Chen L, Gu YD. Different functional reorganization of motor cortex after transfer of the contralateral C7 to different recipient nerves in young rats with total brachial plexus root avulsion. Neurosci Lett 2012; 531:188-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Revised: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
The cerebellum controls smooth and skillful movements and it is also involved in higher cognitive and emotional functions. The cerebellum is derived from the dorsal part of the anterior hindbrain and contains two groups of cerebellar neurons: glutamatergic and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurons. Purkinje cells are GABAergic and granule cells are glutamatergic. Granule and Purkinje cells receive input from outside of the cerebellum from mossy and climbing fibers. Genetic analysis of mice and zebrafish has revealed genetic cascades that control the development of the cerebellum and cerebellar neural circuits. During early neurogenesis, rostrocaudal patterning by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as Otx2, Gbx2 and Fgf8, plays an important role in the positioning and formation of the cerebellar primordium. The cerebellar glutamatergic neurons are derived from progenitors in the cerebellar rhombic lip, which express the proneural gene Atoh1. The GABAergic neurons are derived from progenitors in the ventricular zone, which express the proneural gene Ptf1a. The mossy and climbing fiber neurons originate from progenitors in the hindbrain rhombic lip that express Atoh1 or Ptf1a. Purkinje cells exhibit mediolateral compartmentalization determined on the birthdate of Purkinje cells, and linked to the precise neural circuitry formation. Recent studies have shown that anatomy and development of the cerebellum is conserved between mammals and bony fish (teleost species). In this review, we describe the development of cerebellar neurons and neural circuitry, and discuss their evolution by comparing developmental processes of mammalian and teleost cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuhiro Hashimoto
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai, Showa, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8550, Japan.
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Wylie DR, Pakan JMP, Huynh H, Graham DJ, Iwaniuk AN. Distribution of zebrin-immunoreactive Purkinje cell terminals in the cerebellar and vestibular nuclei of birds. J Comp Neurol 2012; 520:1532-46. [PMID: 22105608 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Zebrin II (aldolase C) is expressed in a subset of Purkinje cells in the mammalian and avian cerebella such that there is a characteristic parasagittal organization of zebrin-immunopositive stripes alternating with zebrin-immunonegative stripes. Zebrin is expressed not only in the soma and dendrites of Purkinje cells but also in their axonal terminals. Here we describe the distribution of zebrin immunoreactivity in both the vestibular and the cerebellar nuclei of pigeons (Columba livia) and hummingbirds (Calypte anna, Selasphorus rufus). In the medial cerebellar nucleus, zebrin-positive labeling was particularly heavy in the “shell,” whereas the “core” was zebrin negative. In the lateral cerebellar nucleus, labeling was not as heavy, but a positive shell and negative core were also observed. In the vestibular nuclear complex, zebrin-positive terminal labeling was heavy in the dorsolateral vestibular nucleus and the lateral margin of the superior vestibular nucleus. The central and medial regions of the superior nucleus were generally zebrin negative. Labeling was moderate to heavy in the medial vestibular nucleus, particulary the rostral half of the parvocellular subnucleus. A moderate amount of zebrin-positive labeling was present in the descending vestibular nucleus: this was heaviest laterally, and the central region was generally zebrin negative. Zebrin-positive terminals were also observed in the the cerebellovestibular process, prepositus hypoglossi, and lateral tangential nucleus. We discuss our findings in light of similar studies in rats and with respect to the corticonuclear projections to the cerebellar nuclei and the functional connections of the vestibulocerebellum with the vestibular nuclei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas R Wylie
- University Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9 Canada.
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40
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Suzuki L, Coulon P, Sabel-Goedknegt EH, Ruigrok TJH. Organization of cerebral projections to identified cerebellar zones in the posterior cerebellum of the rat. J Neurosci 2012; 32:10854-69. [PMID: 22875920 PMCID: PMC6621006 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0857-12.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebrocerebellar connection makes use of two of the largest fiber tracts in the mammalian brain, i.e., the cerebral and medial cerebellar peduncles. Neuroanatomical approaches aimed to elucidate the organization of this important connection have been hindered by its multisynaptic nature, the complex organization of its components, and the dependency of conventional tracers on precisely placed injections. To overcome these problems, we used rabies virus (RV) as a retrograde transneuronal tracer. RV was injected simultaneously with cholera toxin β subunit (CTb) into selected areas of the cerebellar cortex of 18 male Wistar rats. A survival time of 48-50 h resulted in first- and second-order labeling of RV in combination with first-order labeling of CTb. The distribution of CTb-labeled neurons in the inferior olive established the zonal identity of the injection site. In this way, it was possible to examine the cortical distribution of neurons from which disynaptic cerebrocerebellar projections to specific cerebellar loci originate. The results show that this distribution covaries with the identity of the injected cerebellar lobule. More subtle changes were present when different zones of the same lobule were injected. The C1 zone of lobule VIII receives a more prominent projection from the somatosensory cortex compared with the C2/D zones. The laterally positioned D zones receive information from more rostral regions of the cerebral cortex. The vermis of lobule VII receives a prominent input from the retrosplenial and orbitofrontal cortices. Different injection sites also result in differences in laterality of the connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Suzuki
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands, and
| | - Patrice Coulon
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone, CNRS and Aix-Marseille Université, 13385 Marseille Cedex 05, France
| | - Erika H. Sabel-Goedknegt
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands, and
| | - Tom J. H. Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands, and
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Levine AJ, Lewallen KA, Pfaff SL. Spatial organization of cortical and spinal neurons controlling motor behavior. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2012; 22:812-21. [PMID: 22841417 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2012.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A major task of the central nervous system (CNS) is to control behavioral actions, which necessitates a precise regulation of muscle activity. The final components of the circuitry controlling muscles are the motorneurons, which settle into pools in the ventral horn of the spinal cord in positions that mirror the musculature organization within the body. This 'musculotopic' motor-map then becomes the internal CNS reference for the neuronal circuits that control motor commands. This review describes recent progress in defining the neuroanatomical organization of the higher-order motor circuits in the cortex and spinal cord, and our current understanding of the integrative features that contribute to complex motor behaviors. We highlight emerging evidence that cortical and spinal motor command centers are loosely organized with respect to the musculotopic spatial-map, but these centers also incorporate organizational features that associate with the function of different muscle groups during commonly enacted behaviors.
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Coulon P, Bras H, Vinay L. Characterization of last-order premotor interneurons by transneuronal tracing with rabies virus in the neonatal mouse spinal cord. J Comp Neurol 2012; 519:3470-87. [PMID: 21800300 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We characterized the interneurons involved in the control of ankle extensor (triceps surae [TS] muscles) motoneurons (MNs) in the lumbar enlargement of mouse neonates by retrograde transneuronal tracing using rabies virus (RV). Examination of the kinetics of retrograde transneuronal transfer at sequential intervals post inoculation enabled us to determine the time window during which only the first-order interneurons, i.e., interneurons likely monosynaptically connected to MNs (last-order interneurons [loINs]) were RV-infected. The infection of the network resulted exclusively from a retrograde transport of RV along the motor pathway. About 80% of the loINs were observed ipsilaterally to the injection. They were distributed all along the lumbar enlargement, but the majority was observed in L4 and L5 segments where TS MNs were localized. Most loINs were distributed in laminae V-VII, whereas the most superficial laminae were devoid of RV infection. Contralaterally, commissural loINs were found essentially in lamina VIII of all lumbar segments. Groups of loINs were characterized by their chemical phenotypes using dual immunolabeling. Glycinergic neurons connected to TS MNs represented 50% of loINs ipsilaterally and 10% contralaterally. As expected, the ipsilateral glycinergic loINs included Renshaw cells, the most ventral neurons expressing calbindin. We also demonstrated a direct connection between a group of cholinergic interneurons observed ipsilaterally in L3 and the rostral part of L4, and TS MNs. To conclude, transneuronal tracing with RV, combined with an immunohistochemical detection of neuronal determinants, allows a very specific mapping of motor networks involved in the control of single muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrice Coulon
- Laboratoire Plasticité et Physio-Pathologie de la Motricité, Unité Mixte de Recherche 6196, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France.
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Abstract
The distribution of aldolase C (zebrin II)-positive and -negative Purkinje cells (PCs) can be used to define about 20 longitudinally extended compartments in the cerebellar cortex of the rat, which may correspond to certain aspects of cerebellar functional localization. An equivalent compartmental organization may exist in the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN). This DCN compartmentalization is primarily represented by the afferent projection pattern in the DCN. PC projections and collateral nuclear projections of olivocerebellar climbing fiber axons have a relatively localized terminal arbor in the DCN. Projections of these axons make a closed olivo-cortico-nuclear circuit to connect a longitudinal stripe-shaped cortical compartment to a small subarea in the DCN, which can be defined as a DCN compartment. The actual DCN compartmentalization, which has been revealed by systematically mapping these projections, is quite different from the cortical compartmentalization. The stripe-shaped alternation of aldolase C-positive and -negative narrow longitudinal compartments in the cerebellar cortex is transformed to the separate clustering of positive and negative compartments in the caudoventral and rostrodorsal DCN, respectively. The distinctive projection of aldolase C-positive and -negative PCs to the caudoventral and rostrodorsal DCN underlies this transformation. Accordingly, the medial cerebellar nucleus is divided into the rostrodorsal aldolase C-negative and caudoventral aldolase C-positive parts. The anterior and posterior interposed nuclei generally correspond to the aldolase C-negative and -positive parts, respectively. DCN compartmentalization is important for understanding functional localization in the DCN since it is speculated that aldolase C-positive and -negative compartments are generally associated with somatosensory and other functions, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izumi Sugihara
- Department of Systems Neurophysiology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8519, Japan.
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Person AL, Raman IM. Purkinje neuron synchrony elicits time-locked spiking in the cerebellar nuclei. Nature 2011; 481:502-5. [PMID: 22198670 DOI: 10.1038/nature10732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
An unusual feature of the cerebellar cortex is that its output neurons, Purkinje cells, are GABAergic. Their high intrinsic firing rates1 (50 Hz) and extensive convergence2,3 predict that that target neurons in the cerebellar nuclei would be largely inhibited unless Purkinje cells pause their spiking, yet Purkinje and nuclear neuron firing rates do not always vary inversely4. A potential clue to how these synapses transmit information is that populations of Purkinje neurons synchronize their spikes during cerebellar behaviors5–11. If nuclear neurons respond to Purkinje synchrony, they may encode signals from subsets of inhibitory inputs7,12–14. Here we show in weanling and adult mice that nuclear neurons transmit the timing of synchronous Purkinje afferent spikes, owing to modest Purkinje-to-nuclear convergence ratios (~40:1), fast IPSC kinetics (τdecay=2.5 ms), and high intrinsic firing rates (~90 Hz). In vitro, dynamically clamped asynchronous IPSPs mimicking Purkinje afferents suppress nuclear cell spiking, whereas synchronous IPSPs entrain nuclear cell spiking. With partial synchrony, nuclear neurons time-lock their spikes to the synchronous subpopulation of inputs, even when only 2 of 40 afferents synchronize. In vivo, nuclear neurons reliably phase-lock to regular trains of molecular layer stimulation. Thus, cerebellar nuclear neurons can preferentially relay the spike timing of synchronized Purkinje cells to downstream premotor areas.
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Namba K, Sugihara I, Hashimoto M. Close correlation between the birth date of Purkinje cells and the longitudinal compartmentalization of the mouse adult cerebellum. J Comp Neurol 2011; 519:2594-614. [PMID: 21456012 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The adult cerebellum is organized into longitudinal compartments that are revealed by specific axonal projections (olivocerebellar and corticonuclear projections). These compartments in the adult cerebellum are closely correlated with the striped expression of zebrin II (aldolase C), a late-onset marker of Purkinje cells. Similarly, the embryonic cerebellum is organized into longitudinal compartments that are revealed by striped expression of other genes (early-onset markers). The cerebellar compartments are thought to be the basic and functional subdivisions of the cerebellum. However, the relationship between the embryonic (early-onset) and the adult (late-onset) compartments has remained unknown, because the pattern of the embryonic compartments is distinct from that of the adult compartments. To examine this issue, we labeled Purkinje cells (PCs) born at embryonic day (E) 10.5, E11.5, and E12.5 by using an adenoviral vector and traced their fated positions in the adult cerebellum. By comparing the striped distribution of each cohort of birth date-related PCs with the striped pattern of zebrin II immunoreactivity (zebrin II bands) in the entire adult cerebellum, we found that the striped distribution of PCs correlated strikingly with zebrin II bands. Generally, a single early-onset compartment was transformed directly into a single late-onset compartment. Therefore, our observation also indicated the close correlation between the compartments formed by birth date-related PCs and olivocerebellar projections. Furthermore, we found that the cerebellum was composed of three units showing lateral-to-medial developmental gradients, as revealed by the birth dates of PCs. The results suggest that PC birth dates play an important role in organizing cerebellar compartmentalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazunori Namba
- Hashimoto Research Unit, RIKEN BSI, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
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Abstract
The modular concept of cerebellar connections has been advocated in the lifetime work of Jan Voogd. In this concept, a cerebellar module is defined as the conglomerate of one or multiple and non-adjacent, parasagittally arranged zones of Purkinje cells, their specific projection to a well-defined region of the cerebellar nuclei, and the climbing fiber input to these zones by a well-defined region of the inferior olivary complex. The modular organization of these olivo-cortico-nuclear connections is further exemplified by matching reciprocal connections between inferior olive and cerebellar nuclei. Because the different regions of the cerebellar nuclei show highly specific output patterns, cerebellar modules have been suggested to constitute functional entities. This idea is strengthened by the observation that anatomically defined modules adhere to the distribution of chemical markers in the cerebellar cortex suggesting that modules not only differ in their input and output relations but also may differ in operational capabilities. Here, I will briefly review some recent data on the establishment of cerebellar modules in rats. Furthermore, some evidence will be shown suggesting that the other main afferent system (i.e., mossy fibers), at least to some extent, also adheres to the modular organization. Finally, using retrograde transneuronal tracing with rabies virus, some evidence will be provided that several cerebellar modules may be involved in the control of individual muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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47
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Abstract
Powerful transneuronal tracing technologies exploit the ability of some neurotropic viruses to travel across neuronal pathways and to function as self-amplifying markers. Rabies virus is the only viral tracer that is entirely specific, as it propagates exclusively between connected neurons by strictly unidirectional (retrograde) transneuronal transfer, allowing for the stepwise identification of neuronal connections of progressively higher order. Transneuronal tracing studies in primates and rodent models prior to the development of clinical disease have provided valuable information on rabies pathogenesis. We have shown that rabies virus propagation occurs at chemical synapses but not via gap junctions or cell-to-cell spread. Infected neurons remain viable, as they can express their neurotransmitters and cotransport other tracers. Axonal transport occurs at high speed, and all populations of the same synaptic order are infected simultaneously regardless of their neurotransmitters, synaptic strength, and distance, showing that rabies virus receptors are ubiquitously distributed within the CNS. Conversely, in the peripheral nervous system, rabies virus receptors are present only on motor endplates and motor axons, since uptake and transneuronal transmission to the CNS occur exclusively via the motor route, while sensory and autonomic endings are not infected. Infection of sensory and autonomic ganglia requires longer incubation times, as it reflects centrifugal propagation from the CNS to the periphery, via polysynaptic connections from sensory and autonomic neurons to the initially infected motoneurons. Virus is recovered from end organs only after the development of rabies because anterograde spread to end organs is likely mediated by passive diffusion, rather than active transport mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Ugolini
- Neurobiologie et Développement, UPR3294 CNRS, Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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48
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Abstract
Until recently, single-stranded negative sense RNA viruses (ssNSVs) were one of only a few important human viral pathogens, which could not be created from cDNA. The inability to manipulate their genomes hindered their detailed genetic analysis. A key paper from Conzelmann's laboratory in 1994 changed this with the publication of a method to recover rabies virus (RABV) from cDNA. This discovery not only dramatically changed the broader field of ssNSV biology but also opened a whole new avenue for studying RABV pathogenicity, developing novel RABV vaccines as well a new generation of RABV-based vaccine vectors, and creating research tools important in neuroscience such as neuronal tracing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A Gomme
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Sargeant TJ, Wang S, Bradley J, Smith NJC, Raha AA, McNair R, Ziegler RJ, Cheng SH, Cox TM, Cachón-González MB. Adeno-associated virus-mediated expression of β-hexosaminidase prevents neuronal loss in the Sandhoff mouse brain. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20:4371-80. [PMID: 21852247 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddr364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sandhoff disease, a GM2 gangliosidosis caused by a deficiency in β-hexosaminidase, is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration. Although loss of neurons in association with lysosomal storage of glycosphingolipids occurs in patients with this disease, the molecular pathways that lead to the accompanying neurological defects are unclear. Using an authentic murine model of GM2 gangliosidosis, we examined the pattern of neuronal loss in the central nervous system and investigated the effects of gene transfer using recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors expressing β-hexosaminidase subunits (rAAV2/1-Hex). In 4-month-old Sandhoff mice with neurological deficits, cells staining positively for the apoptotic signature in the TUNEL reaction were found in the ventroposterior medial and ventroposterior lateral (VPM/VPL) nuclei of the thalamus. There was progressive loss of neuronal density in this region with age. Comparable loss of neuronal density was identified in the lateral vestibular nucleus of the brainstem and a small but statistically significant loss was present in the ventral spinal cord. Loss of neurons was not detected in other regions that were analysed. Administration of rAAV2/1-Hex into the brain of Sandhoff mice prevented the decline in neuronal density in the VPM/VPL. Preservation of neurons in the VPM/VPL was variable at the humane endpoint in treated animals, but correlated directly with increased lifespan. Loss of neurons was localized to only a few regions in the Sandhoff brain and was prevented by rAAV-mediated transfer of β-hexosaminidase gene function at considerable distances from the site of vector administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Sargeant
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Level 5 Addenbrooke's Hospital, Box 157, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
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Pakan JM, Graham DJ, Gutiérrez-Ibáñez C, Wylie DR. Organization of the cerebellum: correlating zebrin immunochemistry with optic flow zones in the pigeon flocculus. Vis Neurosci 2011; 28:163-74. [PMID: 21463542 DOI: 10.1017/S0952523810000532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellar cortex has a fundamental parasagittal organization that is apparent in the physiological response properties of Purkinje cells (PCs) and the expression of several molecular markers such as zebrin II (ZII). ZII is heterogeneously expressed in PCs such that there are sagittal stripes of high expression [ZII immunopositive (ZII+)] interdigitated with stripes of little or no expression [ZII immunonegative (ZII-)]. Several studies in rodents have suggested that climbing fiber (CF) afferents from an individual subnucleus in the inferior olive project to either ZII+ or ZII- stripes but not both. In this report, we show that this is not the case in the pigeon flocculus. The flocculus (the lateral half of folia IXcd and X) receives visual-optokinetic information and is important for generating compensatory eye movements to facilitate gaze stabilization. Previous electrophysiological studies from our lab have shown that the pigeon flocculus consists of four parasagittal zones: 0, 1, 2, and 3. PC complex spike activity (CSA), which reflects CF input, in zones 0 and 2 responds best to rotational optokinetic stimuli about the vertical axis (VA zones), whereas CSA in zones 1 and 3 responds best to rotational optokinetic stimuli about the horizontal axis (HA zones). In addition, folium IXcd consists of seven pairs of ZII+/- stripes. Here, we recorded CSA of floccular PCs to optokinetic stimuli, marked recording locations, and subsequently visualized ZII expression in the flocculus. VA neurons were localized to the P4+/- and P6+/- stripes and HA neurons were localized to the P5+/- and P7- stripes. This is the first study showing that a series of adjacent ZII+/- stripes are tied to specific physiological functions as measured in the responses of PCs to natural stimulation. Moreover, this study shows that the functional zone in the pigeon flocculus spans a ZII+/- stripe pair, which is contrary to the scheme proposed from rodent research.
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