Concurrent gout and suspected hypovitaminosis A in crocodile hatchlings

Digestibility of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) fed to leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae have been marketed as an excellent choice for providing calcium to reptiles without the need of dusting or gut loading. However, previous studies have indicated that they have limited calcium digestibility and are deficient in fat soluble vitamins (A, D3, and E). In this feeding and digestibility trial, 24 adult male leopard geckos were fed one of three diets for 4 months: 1) whole, vitamin A gut loaded larvae; 2) needle pierced, vitamin A gut loaded larvae; or 3) whole, non-gut loaded larvae. Fecal output from the geckos was collected daily and apparent digestibility was calculated for dry matter, protein, fat, and minerals. There were no differences in digestibility coefficients among groups. Most nutrients were well digested by the leopard geckos when compared to previous studies, with the exception of calcium (digestibility co-efficient 43%), as the calcium-rich exoskeleton usually remained intact after passage through the GI tract. Biochemistry profiles revealed possible deficits occurring over time for calcium, sodium, and total protein. In regards to vitamin A digestibility, plasma and liver vitamin A concentrations were significantly higher in the supplemented groups (plasma- gut loaded groups: 33.38 ± 7.11 ng/ml, control group: 25.8 ± 6.72 ng/ml, t = 1.906, p = 0.04; liver- gut loaded groups: 28.67 ± 18.90 μg/g, control group: 14.13 ± 7.41 μg/g, t = 1.951, p = 0.03). While leopard geckos are able to digest most of the nutrients provided by BSF larvae, including those that have been gut loaded, more research needs to be performed to assess whether or not they provide adequate calcium in their non-supplemented form.

Diseases of the Reptile Renal System

Renal disease accounts for a considerable amount of morbidity and mortality in reptiles, in part owing to inadequate husbandry practices, such as inappropriate temperature, humidity, and access to water. Inappropriate husbandry practices may lead to subclinical dehydration that can specifically impact the renal system, which relies on vascular perfusion to function. This article aims to highlight urinary pathophysiology and summarize infectious and noninfectious causes of renal disease in reptiles as a guide for differential diagnoses to consider during clinical evaluation.

Diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of and risk factors for ophthalmic disease in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) at a veterinary teaching hospital: 52 cases (1985-2013)

OBJECTIVE To describe diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of and risk factors for ophthalmic disease in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) evaluated at a veterinary teaching hospital. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 112 of 144 (78%) leopard geckos that were evaluated at a veterinary teaching hospital in January 1985 through October 2013 and for which sufficient medical record information was available. PROCEDURES Information from medical records was used to identify leopard geckos with ophthalmic disease, characterize cases, and determine risk factors for the presence of ophthalmic disease. RESULTS Of the 112 leopard geckos, 52 (46%) had ophthalmic disease (mainly corneal or conjunctival disease). Female geckos were less likely to have ophthalmic disease, and there was a positive association between increasing age and ophthalmic disease. Use of a paper towel substrate, absence of any heat source, and lack of vitamin A supplementation were positively associated with a diagnosis of ophthalmic disease. Head dysecdysis was the only concurrent disorder significantly associated with ophthalmic disease. At necropsy, 5 affected leopard geckos had squamous metaplasia of the conjunctivae. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that ophthalmic disease is a common finding in leopard geckos. The cause of ocular surface disease in leopard geckos may be multifactorial, and hypovitaminosis A may be an important risk factor. Although animals receiving supplemental vitamin A were less likely to have ophthalmic disease, further understanding is required regarding the metabolism of and nutritional requirements for vitamin A in leopard geckos.

Evaluation of β-carotene assimilation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

Although leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are commonly kept under human care, their vitamin requirements are largely unknown. Many invertebrate preys display a low vitamin A concentration; thus, gut-loading insects with vitamin A or carotenoids is a common practice. The objective of this prospective experimental study was to investigate whether dietary supplementation with β-carotene, including prey gut-loading, leads to sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage and prevents epithelial squamous metaplasia development in leopard geckos. Ten clinically healthy female leopard geckos were randomly divided in two groups with various supplementations: a group receiving vitamin A supplementation and a group receiving β-carotene. Insects were gut-loaded continuously with a supplement containing vitamin A or β-carotene, depending on the group. Oral supplementation with cod liver oil or carrot juice was administered weekly to each lizard from "vitamin A group" and "carotenoid group" respectively. After 10 weeks of supplementation, surgical hepatic biopsies were obtained in three geckos of each group while the two remaining geckos were euthanized to undergo complete necropsy. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was determined for each lizard (n = 10) by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Histopathology revealed hepatocellular vacuolization and vitellogenic follicles in five females. Epithelial squamous metaplasia was not observed in any of the geckos. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was significantly higher in the carotenoid-supplemented group than in the vitamin A-supplemented group (p = 0.03). Our results suggest that in leopard geckos, dietary supplementation with β-carotene allows sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage.

Update on common nutritional disorders of captive reptiles

Nutritional disorders of captive reptiles remain very common despite the increasing knowledge about reptile husbandry and nutrition. Many nutritional disorders are diagnosed late in the disease process; often secondary complications, such as pathologic fractures in reptiles suffering from nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism have occurred. Therefore, every attempt should be made to educate reptile owners and keepers about the proper care and dietary needs of reptiles under their care because all nutritional disorders seen in captive reptiles are preventable.

CROCODILIANS. Manual of Exotic Pet Practice. Elsevier; 2009. pp. 112-35. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-141600119-5.50009-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

This chapter presents a general overview of the anatomy, physiology, and treatment methodology for crocodilians. Most crocodilians grow to be larger than other reptile species and, therefore, have significant space requirements. Like most animals requiring an aquatic environment, crocodilians need water that is clean and free of disease. Crocodilians have a true hard palate in the roof of the mouth that ends caudally in a soft palate. This soft palate has a ventral flap which is referred to as the velum palati. The respiratory system of crocodilians consists of well-developed lungs benefiting from a very effective inspiration aided by the intercostal muscles and the septum post hepaticum. Crocodilians have a four-chambered heart as opposed to the three-chambered heart found in other reptiles and amphibians. The temperature and humidity requirements for crocodilians in captivity vary with the species. An understanding of crocodilian biology and natural history is needed to try and duplicate their natural environment. An important consideration is the allowance of circadian variations in light cycle and temperatures to mimic their natural environment. This is not the case in many commercial operations, where they are maintained at a fairly constant temperature and humidity to achieve faster growth.