Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection and the molecular characteristics of MRSA bacteraemia over a two-year period in a tertiary teaching hospital in Malaysia

Whole genome sequencing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates from Terengganu, Malaysia, indicates the predominance of the EMRSA-15 (ST22-SCCmec IV) clone

Despite the importance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as a priority nosocomial pathogen, the genome sequences of Malaysian MRSA isolates are currently limited to a small pool of samples. Here, we present the genome sequence analyses of 88 clinical MRSA isolates obtained from the main tertiary hospital in Terengganu, Malaysia in 2016-2020, to obtain in-depth insights into their characteristics. The EMRSA-15 (ST22-SCCmec IV) clone of the clonal complex 22 (CC22) lineage was predominant with a total of 61 (69.3%) isolates. Earlier reports from other Malaysian hospitals indicated the predominance of the ST239 clone, but only two (2.3%) isolates were identified in this study. Two Indian-origin clones, the Bengal Bay clone ST772-SCCmec V (n = 2) and ST672 (n = 10) were also detected, with most of the ST672 isolates obtained in 2020 (n = 7). Two new STs were found, with one isolate each, and were designated ST7879 and ST7883. From the core genome phylogenetic tree, the HSNZ MRSA isolates could be grouped into seven clades. Antimicrobial phenotype-genotype concordance was high (> 95%), indicating the accuracy of WGS in predicting most resistances. Majority of the MRSA isolates were found to harbor more than 10 virulence genes, demonstrating their pathogenic nature.

The Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Tertiary Saudi Hospital

BACKGROUND

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a major public health problem all over the world. After the 2019 coronavirus illness (COVID-19), the pandemic may have influenced research priorities and resource allocation, potentially affecting the ability to monitor MRSA trends.

AIMS

The study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of S. aureus, including MRSA infections, and their antimicrobial susceptibilities over the years 2019 and 2020 in a tertiary hospital in Makkah City, KSA.

METHODOLOGY

A total of 2128 and 1515 laboratory (lab) samples were collected during the years 2019 and 2020, respectively. From these samples, the prevalence of S. aureus, including MRSA, and their antibiotic susceptibility were identified using standard, automated, and molecular microbiological methods.

RESULTS

The present study shows that the lab prevalence of all S. aureus during 2019 was found to be 35.5%, of which MRSA was 44.8%. During 2020, the frequency of S. aureus strains was 16%, of which MRSA was 41.2%. The most common MRSA isolated during both years were colonizing pus swabs and urine samples. The results showed that MRSA susceptibility against antimicrobial agents in 2019 was as follows: vancomycin (100%), linezolid (100%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (88%), and doxycycline (34.2%). The MRSA strains isolated during 2020 were as follows: vancomycin (100%), linezolid (96%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (100%), and doxycycline (24.3%). There was no significant difference in the incidence and antimicrobial resistance rates of MRSA over the two years.

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that the prevalence rates of MRSA have not increased in 2020 when compared to 2019. Vancomycin, linezolid, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and doxycycline remain susceptible to the positive collected MRSA strains. There was no significant difference between the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance rates of MRSA between 2019 and 2020. Continued research efforts are needed to address this persistent public health threat. Strategies to control the spread of MRSA should include early detection of MRSA and surveillance, even during pandemics.

Lead generation of UPPS inhibitors targeting MRSA: Using 3D-QSAR pharmacophore modeling, virtual screening, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulations

Undecaprenyl Pyrophosphate Synthase (UPPS) is a vital target enzyme in the early stages of bacterial cell wall biosynthesis. UPPS inhibitors have antibacterial activity against resistant strains such as MRSA and VRE. In this study, we used several consecutive computer-based protocols to identify novel UPPS inhibitors. The 3D QSAR pharmacophore model generation (HypoGen algorithm) protocol was used to generate a valid predictive pharmacophore model using a set of UPPS inhibitors with known reported activity. The developed model consists of four pharmacophoric features: one hydrogen bond acceptor, two hydrophobic, and one aromatic ring. It had a correlation coefficient of 0.86 and a null cost difference of 191.39, reflecting its high predictive power. Hypo1 was proven to be statistically significant using Fischer's randomization at a 95% confidence level. The validated pharmacophore model was used for the virtual screening of several databases. The resulting hits were filtered using SMART and Lipinski filters. The hits were docked into the binding site of the UPPS protein, affording 70 hits with higher docking affinities than the reference compound (6TC, - 21.17 kcal/mol). The top five hits were selected through extensive docking analysis and visual inspection based on docking affinities, fit values, and key residue interactions with the UPPS receptor. Moreover, molecular dynamic simulations of the top hits were performed to confirm the stability of the protein-ligand complexes, yielding five promising novel UPPS inhibitors.

Social demographics determinants for resistome and microbiome variation of a multiethnic community in Southern Malaysia

The prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in Southeast Asia is a significant concern, yet there is limited research on the gut resistome and its correlation with lifestyle and environmental factors in the region. This study aimed to profile the gut resistome of 200 individuals in Malaysia using shotgun metagenomic sequencing and investigate its association with questionnaire data comprising demographic and lifestyle variables. A total of 1038 antibiotic resistance genes from 26 classes were detected with a mean carriage rate of 1.74 ± 1.18 gene copies per cell per person. Correlation analysis identified 14 environmental factors, including hygiene habits, health parameters, and intestinal colonization, that were significantly associated with the resistome (adjusted multivariate PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). Notably, individuals with positive yeast cultures exhibited a reduced copy number of 15 antibiotic resistance genes. Network analysis highlighted Escherichia coli as a major resistome network hub, with a positive correlation to 36 antibiotic-resistance genes. Our findings suggest that E. coli may play a pivotal role in shaping the resistome dynamics in Segamat, Malaysia, and its abundance is strongly associated with the community's health and lifestyle habits. Furthermore, the presence of yeast appears to be associated with the suppression of antibiotic-resistance genes.

Dissemination Pattern of Hospital-Acquired Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Community-Acquired MRSA Isolates from Malaysian Hospitals: A Review from a Molecular Perspective

The global emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) that unsusceptible to a wide selection of antimicrobial agents and any newly introduced antimicrobial over the past decades has triggered more extensive holistic measures to put an end to this situation. Molecular surveillance of MRSA clones is important to understand their evolutionary dynamics for investigating outbreaks, propagating precautionary measures, as well as planning for appropriate treatment. This review includes peer-reviewed reports on the molecular characterisation of clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates within Malaysian hospitals from year 2008 to 2020. This work highlights the molecular clones of hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA) and community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) isolates from Malaysian hospitals, with description on their ever-changing pattern. Among HA-MRSA, the ST22-t032-SCCmec IV MRSA clone was reported to supplant the previous dominating clone, ST239-t037-SCCmec III. Meanwhile, ST30, ST772, ST6 and ST22 were repeatedly detected in CA-MRSA, however, none of the strains became predominant. Future in-depth study on molecular epidemiology of MRSA clone is essential for the investigation of the extent of the clonal shift, especially in Malaysia.

Genetic Identification of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Nasal Carriage and Its Antibiogram among Kidney Dialysis Patients at a Tertiary Care Hospital in AL-Karak, Jordan

Background. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major bacterial pathogen. Aim. The present study aimed to determine the incidence of MRSA infections among kidney dialysis patients and the antibiotic susceptibility patterns and investigate the prevalence of mecA gene among MRSA isolates. Materials and Methods. A total of 83 nasal sterile cotton swabs samples were obtained from hemodialysis patients from Al-Karak Governmental Hospital, Al-Karak, Jordan. Collected and cultured on nutrient agar and mannitol salt agar and incubating at 37°C for 24–48 hours, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) strains were identified by gram stain, coagulase test, and catalase tests. The MRSA isolates were tested for the presence of MecA and SCCmec genes using the Xpert SA Nasal Complete assay real-time PCR. Factors such as age and gender were included in the study. The antibiotic profile tested by using the disc diffusion method tested all MRSA isolates. Results. This study showed that 10.8% of the cultures’ growth was S. aureus and 9.6% of all the patients were infected with MRSA, with no relationship between the number and frequency of MRSA according to the patient’s gender or age. All MRSA (100%) isolates have both genes (MecA genes and SCCmec genes), and all samples were resistant to oxacillin, ceftazidime, cefoxitin, aztreonam, and ampicillin. Conclusion. The MRSA prevalence was determined among kidney dialysis patients in the hospital. All positive samples were resistant to oxacillin, ceftazidime, cefoxitin, aztreonam, and ampicillin, which is a very rare finding, and this will give the scientists and doctors a dangerous indication about health-care centers in the Al-Karak city of Jordan.

Diversity and Dissemination of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Genotypes in Southeast Asia

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a successful pathogen that has achieved global dissemination, with high prevalence rates in Southeast Asia. A huge diversity of clones has been reported in this region, with MRSA ST239 being the most successful lineage. Nonetheless, description of MRSA genotypes circulating in the Southeast Asia region has, until now, remained poorly compiled. In this review, we aim to provide a better understanding of the molecular epidemiology and distribution of MRSA clones in 11 Southeast Asian countries: Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR), Myanmar, Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam, and Timor-Leste. Notably, while archaic multidrug-resistant hospital-associated (HA) MRSAs, such as the ST239-III and ST241-III, were prominent in the region during earlier observations, these were then largely replaced by the more antibiotic-susceptible community-acquired (CA) MRSAs, such as ST22-IV and PVL-positive ST30-IV, in recent years after the turn of the century. Nonetheless, reports of livestock-associated (LA) MRSAs remain few in the region.

Potential Use of African Botanicals and Other Compounds in the Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections

Infections caused by the group of Staphylococcus bacteria are commonly called Staph infections, and over 30 types of Staphylococcal bacteria exist with Staphylococcus aureus causing about 90% of the infections from the genus. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a major cause of both hospital- and community-acquired infections with major concern arising from its strain of species that is resistant to many antibiotics. One of such strain is the Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) that has been described to be a resistance to methicillin drugs. Another is glycopeptides-resistant emerging from the increased use of glycopeptides drugs. This continuous emergence and spread of new resistant strains of S. aureus is a major challenge which makes the search for novel anti-resistant agents imperative. The development of vaccines from natural and synthetic products is some of the measures being proposed for the protection against the infections. Also, the development of monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies for passive immunization is sought for, and attentions with regard to arriving at successful trials have been directed back to medicinal plant research as an alternative. This review discusses the treatment strategies of MRSA, the antibacterial property of various medicinal plants, and the influence of their active compounds on methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), as well as to recommend the path to future research in this area.

Niosomal entrapment improved the bactericidal properties of azithromycin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Aim: This study seeks to optimize niosomal formulations of azithromycin (AZ) and evaluate their activities against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Methods: The thin-film hydration was used to prepare niosomes containing various molar ratios of span 60, cholesterol, dicetylphosphate and AZ. Formulation 5, with 5:1:1:1 molar ratio, was optimized based on entrapment efficiency. Solid state analyses and accelerated stability were carried out. The antibacterial properties against MRSA was determined by agar well diffusion method. Results: Physico-chemical characterization of formulation 5 confirmed successful encapsulation of AZ with slightly improved stability at 30°C for 6 months. Niosomal AZ at 0.1% is as effective as vancomycin in inhibiting the growth of MRSA. Conclusion: The antibacterial activities of AZ against MRSA is enhanced when encapsulated within niosomes.

Genetic Diversity among Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Malaysia (2002-2020)

1.

BACKGROUND

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a common organism seen in both healthcare-associated and community-associated infections worldwide and in Malaysia over the past two decades. The aim of this review is to provide a firsthand documentation of all MRSA strains prevalent in the Malaysian population from 2002 to present and briefly describe the changing patterns. 2.

METHODS

Electronic and manual intensive literature searches were conducted between 2002 and 2020, addressing issues directly related to patients and published in the English language were selected. 3.

RESULTS

The literature search retrieved a total of 2217 articles and abstracts of 27 articles. The search yielded a total of 24 articles on genotyping of MRSA in Malaysia. The study found that MRSA strains were mostly genetically related and resulted in the predominant MRSA clones that caused active infections. Thirty-six different sequence types (ST) were recorded. The highest rates of STs detected were ST239 (52.6%), ST1 (47.4%), and ST22 (42.1%). The majority of studies showed that both SCCmec types III and IV were the most common SCCm type in Malaysia, followed by SCCmec type V (57.9%). 4.

CONCLUSIONS

Both Brazilian (ST 239 IIIA) and Hungarian (ST 239-III) MRSA strains were detected in Malaysia. PFGE remains the best method for comparing MRSA strains. However, whole-genome sequencing has a promising chance to replace PFGE in the future.

Detection of Methicillin Resistance and β-Lactamase Production in Staphylococcus aureus Isolates: A Cross Sectional Study from a Tertiary Care Hospital

Nosocomial infections are proving to be a menace for the whole health care system, with methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) being a very notorious causative agent. Along with the role of mecA gene producing penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a), production of beta-lactamase enzyme by Staphylococcus aureus makes the organism resistant to all β-lactam agents. This study aims at phenotypic detection of methicillin resistance and β-Lactamase production in all S. aureus isolates by Cefoxitin disk diffusion test and Penicillin zone-edge test, respectively. In this prospective cross-sectional study, samples were obtained from patients admitted to different departments and were processed according to the standard laboratory protocols. As per the CLSI guidelines, phenotypic detection of resistance to methicillin was done by Cefoxitin Disk Diffusion test, whereas production of beta-lactamase enzyme was phenotypically detected by penicillin zone edge test. Among 179 isolates of S. aureus, 116 (64.8%) were MRSA, whereas the remaining 63 (35.2%) isolates were methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). Staphylococcus aureus infection among ICU and non-ICU patients were found to be 24(13%) and 155(86.6%) respectively. Among 24 ICU patients, 19 had MRSA infection, whereas among 155 non-ICU patients, 97 had MRSA infection. Out of 63 MSSA isolates, only 2 (3.17%) were found to be sensitive to Penicillin by Zone-edge test, 04 isolates showed presence of β-lactamase production, while remaining 57 isolates were resistant to Penicillin. At the same time, several class of antibiotics were found to be ineffective against these MRSA isolates. Cases of methicillin-resistant and b–lactamase producing Staphylococcus aureus infections are on the rise in our hospital settings.

Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant ESKAPEE pathogens from clinical samples in Chonburi, Thailand (2017-2018)

BACKGROUND

ESKAPEE pathogens Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp. and Escherichia coli are multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria that present increasing treatment challenges for healthcare institutions and public health worldwide.

METHODS

431 MDR ESKAPEE pathogens were collected from Queen Sirikit Naval Hospital, Chonburi, Thailand between 2017 and 2018. Species identification and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) phenotype were determined following CLSI and EUCAST guidelines on the BD Phoenix System. Molecular identification of antibiotic resistant genes was performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR assays, and whole genome sequencing (WGS).

RESULTS

Of the 431 MDR isolates collected, 1.2% were E. faecium, 5.8% were S. aureus, 23.7% were K. pneumoniae, 22.5% were A. baumannii, 4.6% were P. aeruginosa, 0.9% were Enterobacter spp., and 41.3% were E. coli. Of the 401 Gram-negative MDR isolates, 51% were carbapenem resistant, 45% were ESBL producers only, 2% were colistin resistance and ESBLs producers (2%), and 2% were non-ESBLs producers. The most prevalent carbapenemase genes were bla_OXA-23 (23%), which was only identified in A. baumannii, followed by bla_NDM (17%), and bla_OXA-48-like (13%). Beta-lactamase genes detected included bla_TEM, bla_SHV, bla_OXA, bla_CTX-M, bla_DHA, bla_CMY, bla_PER and bla_VEB. Seven E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates showed resistance to colistin and carried mcr-1 or mcr-3, with 2 E. coli strains carrying both genes. Among 30 Gram-positive MDR ESKAPEE, all VRE isolates carried the vanA gene (100%) and 84% S. aureus isolates carried the mecA gene.

CONCLUSIONS

This report highlights the prevalence of AMR among clinical ESKAPEE pathogens in eastern Thailand. E. coli was the most common MDR pathogen collected, followed by K. pneumoniae, and A. baumannii. Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) and extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) producers were the most common resistance profiles. The co-occurrence of mcr-1 and mcr-3 in 2 E. coli strains, which did not affect the level of colistin resistance, is also reported. The participation of global stakeholders and surveillance of MDR remain essential for the control and management of MDR ESKAPEE pathogens.

Diversity of clonal complex 22 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Kuwait hospitals

CC22-MRSA is a major MRSA lineage that is widely reported globally. To characterize CC22-MRSA for trends in antibiotic resistance and emergence of variants, a total of 636 CC22 isolates identified by DNA microarray in 2016 (n = 195), 2017 (n = 227) and 2018 (n = 214) were investigated further using staphylococcal protein A (spa) typing and multilocus sequence typing. The isolates belonged to 109 spa types dominated by t223 (n = 160), t032 (n = 60), t852 (n = 59), t005 (n = 56) and t309 (n = 30) and 10 sequence types (STs) dominated by ST22 (85.5%). Genotypes CC22-MRSA-IV [tst1⁺]; CC22-MRSA-IV UK-EMRSA-15/Barnim EMRSA variants, CC22-MRSA-IV [PVL⁺], CC22-MRSA-IV [tst1⁺/PVL⁺] and CC22-MRSA-IV + V constituted >50% of the isolates. An increase from 2016 to 2018 were shown in isolates belonging to spa types t223 (43 to 62), t032 (18 to 27) and t309 (10 to 15) and genotypes CC22-MRSA-IV [tst1⁺] (89 to 102), CC22-MRSA-IV + V (12 to 30) and CC22-MRSA-IV [tst1⁺/PVL⁺] (12 to 22). Ninety-nine CC22-MRSA isolates were multi-resistant to three or more antibiotic classes with 76.7% of them belonging to CC22-MRSA-IV [PVL⁺] and CC22-MRSA-IV [tst1⁺/PVL⁺]. The study revealed an ongoing domination of the CC22-MRSA-[tst1⁺] genotype and the emergence of new clones bearing SCCmec IV + V and multiply resistant variants.

Emergence of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST239/241 SCCmec-III Mercury in Eastern Algeria

In this paper, we investigate the epidemiology of infections-associated Staphylococcusaureus (S. aureus) from the Medical Intensive Care Unit (MICU) at University Hospital Center of Constantine (UHCC) in Algeria, with a special emphasis on methicillin-resistant strains (MRSA) revealed by cefoxitin disks (30 μg), then confirmed by penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a) agglutination and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) targeting mecA and mecC genes. Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec type), staphylococcal protein A (spa-type), multilocus sequence type (MLST), Panton-Valentine Leucocidin (PVL), and toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) were further investigated in all isolates, and whole genome sequencing was performed for a selected subset of three hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA) isolates. A measurement of 80% out of the 50 S. aureus isolates were identified as HA-MRSA harbouring the mecA gene, and 72.5% of them were multidrug resistant (MDR). Twelve STs, four different SCCmec cassettes, fourteen spa types, ten isolates Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (PVL)-positive, and three isolates TSST-1 were identified. Interestingly, there was a high prevalence (n = 29; 72.5%) of a worrisome emerging clone: the HA-MRSA ST239/241 SCCmec-III mercury with PVL negative, resistant to β-lactams, aminoglycosides, quinolones, and tetracyclines. Other clones of HA-MRSA isolates were also identified, including PVL-positive ST80 SCCmec-IV/SCCmec-unknown (22.5%), ST34 SCCmec-V with TSST-1 positive (2.5%), and PVL-negative ST72 SCCmec-II (2.5%). Genome analysis enables us to describe the first detection of both PVL-negative HA-MRSA ST239/241 SCCmec-III mercury carrying ccrC, as well as SCCmec-V cassette, which dramatically changes the epidemiology of S. aureus infections in one of the hospitals in eastern Algeria.

Antibiotic Susceptibility, Biofilm Production, and Detection of mecA Gene among Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Different Clinical Specimens

The increasing incidence of methicillin-resistant and biofilm-forming S. aureus isolates in hospital settings is a gruesome concern today. The main objectives of this study were to determine the burden of S. aureus in clinical samples, assess their antibiotic susceptibility pattern and detect biofilm formation and mecA gene in them. A total of 1968 different clinical specimens were processed to isolate S. aureus following standard microbiological procedures. Antibiotic susceptibility test of the isolates was performed by Kirby–Bauer disc-diffusion method following CLSI guidelines. Biofilm was detected through tissue culture plate method. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates were screened using cefoxitin (30 µg) discs and mecA gene was amplified by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Of 177 bacterial growth, the prevalence of S. aureus was 15.3% (n = 27). MRSA were 55.6% (15/27) and 44% (12/27) exhibited multidrug resistance (MDR). There was no significant association between methicillin resistance and MDR (p > 0.05). Both MRSA and MSSA were least sensitive to penicillin (100%, 75%) followed by erythromycin (86.6%, 66.6%). Most of the MRSA (93.4%) were susceptible to tetracycline. All S. aureus isolates were biofilm producers—19 (70%) were weak and only one (4%) was a strong biofilm producer. The strong biofilm-producing MSSA was resistant to most of the antibiotics except cefoxitin and clindamycin. None of the MSSA possessed mecA gene while 8 (53.3%) MRSA had it. More than half of S. aureus isolated were MRSA. High incidence of multidrug resistance along with capacity to form biofilm among clinical isolates of S.aureus is a matter of apprehension and prompt adoption of biosafety measures is suggested to curb their dissemination in the hospital environments.

Regulation of virulence and β-lactamase gene expression in Staphylococcus aureus isolates: cooperation of two-component systems in bloodstream superbugs

BACKGROUND

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)-bloodstream infections (BSI) are predominantly seen in the hospital or healthcare-associated host. Nevertheless, the interactions of virulence factor (VFs) regulators and β-lactam resistance in MRSA-BSI are unclear. This study aims to characterize the molecular relationship of two-component systems of VFs and the expression of the β-lactamase gene in MRSA-BSI isolates. In this study, 639 samples were collected from BSI and identified by phenotypic methods. We performed extensive molecular characterization, including SCCmec type, agr type, VFs gene profiles determinations, and MLST on isolates. Also, a quantitative real-time PCR (q-RT PCR) assay was developed for identifying the gene expressions.

RESULTS

Ninety-one (91) S. aureus and 61 MRSA (67.0%) strains were detected in BSI samples. The presence of VFs and SCCmec genes in MRSA isolates were as follows: tst (31.4%), etA (18.0%), etB (8.19%), lukS-PVL (31.4%), lukF-PV (18.0%), lukE-lukD (16.3%), edin (3.2%), hla (16.3%), hlb (18.0%), hld (14.7%), hlg (22.9%), SCCmecI (16.3%), SCCmecII (22.9%), SCCmecIII (36.0%), SCCmecIV (21.3%), and SCCmecV (16.3%). Quantitative real-time PCR showed overexpression of mecRI and mecI in the toxigenic isolates. Moreover, RNAIII and sarA genes were the highest expressions of MRSA strains. The multi-locus sequence typing data confirmed a high prevalence of CC5, CC8, and CC30. However, ST30, ST22, and ST5 were the most prevalent in the resistant and toxigenic strains.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that although regulation of β-lactamase gene expressions is a significant contributor to resistance development, two-component systems also influence antibiotic resistance development in MRSA-BSI isolates. This indicates that resistant strains might have pathogenic potential. We also confirmed that some MLST types are more successful colonizers with a potential for MRSA-BSI.

Genetic mechanisms and correlated risk factors of antimicrobial-resistant ESKAPEE pathogens isolated in a tertiary hospital in Malaysia

BACKGROUND

Knowledge on the epidemiology, genotypic and phenotypic features of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) ESKAPEE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp., and Escherichia coli) and their association with hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are limited in Malaysia. Therefore, we evaluated the AMR features and resistance mechanisms of the ESKAPEE pathogens collected in a tertiary hospital located in the capital of Malaysia.

METHODS

A total of 378 AMR-ESKAPEE strains were obtained based on convenience sampling over a nine-month study period (2019-2020). All strains were subjected to disk diffusion and broth microdilution assays to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequence analyses were performed to determine the AMR genes profiles of the non-susceptible strains. Chi-square test and logistic regression analyses were used to correlate the AMR profiles and clinical data to determine the risk factors associated with HAIs.

RESULTS

High rates of multidrug resistance (MDR) were observed in A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae, E. coli, and S. aureus (69-89%). All organisms except E. coli were frequently associated with HAIs (61-94%). Non-susceptibility to the last-resort drugs vancomycin (in Enterococcus spp. and S. aureus), carbapenems (in A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa, and Enterobacteriaceae), and colistin (in Enterobacteriaceae) were observed. Both A. baumannii and K. pneumoniae harbored a wide array of extended-spectrum β-lactamase genes (blaTEM, blaSHV, blaCTX-M, blaOXA). Metallo-β-lactamase genes (blaVEB, blaVIM, blaNDM) were detected in carbapenem-resistant strains, at a higher frequency compared to other local reports. We detected two novel mutations in the quinolone-resistant determining region of the gyrA in fluoroquinolone-resistant E. coli (Leu-102-Ala; Gly-105-Val). Microbial resistance to ampicillin, methicillin, and cephalosporins was identified as important risk factors associated with HAIs in the hospital.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our findings may provide valuable insight into the microbial resistance pattern and the risk factors of ESKAPEE-associated HAIs in a tertiary hospital located in central Peninsular Malaysia. The data obtained in this study may contribute to informing better hospital infection control in this region.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Clonal Replacement in a Malaysian Teaching Hospital: Findings from an Eight-Year Interval Molecular Surveillance

Periodical surveillance on nosocomial pathogens is important for antimicrobial stewardship and infection control. The first methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) molecular surveillance in Hospital Canselor Tuanku Muhriz (HCTM), a Malaysian teaching hospital, was performed in 2009. The dominant clone was identified as an MRSA carrying SCCmec type III-SCCmercury with ccrC and sea+cna toxin genes. In this study, we report the findings of the second HCTM MRSA surveillance carried out in 2017, after an interval of 8 years. Antibiotic susceptibility testing, SCCmec, toxin gene, and spa typing were performed for 222 MRSA strains isolated in 2017. Most strains were resistant to ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, clindamycin, cefoxitin, and penicillin (n = 126, 56.8%), belong to SCCmec type IV (n = 205, 92.3%), spa type t032 (n = 160, 72.1%) and harboured seg+sei toxin genes (n = 172, 77.5%). There was significant association between resistance of the aforementioned antibiotics with SCCmec type IV (p < 0.05), t032 (p < 0.001), and seg+sei carriage (p < 0.05). Results from this second MRSA surveillance revealed the occurrence of clonal replacement in HCTM during an interval of not more than 8 years. Investigation of the corresponding phenotype changes in this new dominant MRSA clone is currently on-going.

Prevalence of PVL and LucED Genes in Methicillin-Resistant and Susceptible Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Burn Patients in Kermanshah, Iran

Background: The main pathogen causing various nosocomial infections, especially in burn patients, is Staphylococcus aureus. An important virulence factor of this bacterium is leukocidin, which binds to white blood cells and leads to apoptosis and necrosis. Objectives: In the present research, we aimed at investigating the prevalence of the panton-valentine leukocidin (PVL) and LucED genes in methicillin-susceptible and resistant isolates of S. aureus isolated from burn patients in Kermanshah, Iran. Methods: Overall, 73 isolates of S. aureus were collected from burn wounds and identified by specific biochemical tests. After determining the susceptibility patterns of the isolates by the disc diffusion method, the frequencies of the PVL and LucED genes were assessed using specific primers and polymerase chain reactions. Results: The rates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) isolates were 58.9% (43 isolates) and 41.1% (30 isolates), respectively. In MRSA isolates, the highest antibiotic resistance was to penicillin (100%) and gentamicin (81.4%). Moreover, the frequencies of the LucED and PVL genes were 76.7% (56 isolates) and 27.4% (20 isolates), respectively, and the highest frequency of the LucED and PVL genes was observed in MRSA (81.4%) and MSSA (40%) isolates, respectively. Conclusions: Increased multidrug resistance pattern among S. aureus isolates with leukocidin production has led to treatment failure and severe infections. The development of infections can be prevented by the identification of isolates carrying the leukocidin gene, and early detection of MRSA isolates is feasible by using the PVL gene.

Genomic analysis revealed a novel genotype of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus isolated from a fatal sepsis case in dengue patient

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing serious health implications in susceptible individuals once it invades the host’s protective barriers. Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) often receives lesser attention although it has been frequently associated with serious infections in human. We aim to investigate the genomic features of a highly virulent yet pan susceptible MSSA strain (coded as HS-MSSA) which caused concurrent bacteraemia in a dengue patient, ultimately resulted in sepsis death of the patient. Whole genome sequence analysis was performed. The draft genome of HS-MSSA is approximately 2.78 Mb (GC content = 32.7%) comprising of 2637 predicted coding sequences. In silico genotyping of the HS-MSSA strain revealed a novel combined genotype (t091/ST2990). The HS-MSSA carries a SaPIn1-like pathogenicity island that harbours the staphylococcal enterotoxin and enterotoxin-like genes (sec3 and selL). The strain-specific β-lactamase (blaZ)-bearing plasmid region was identified in HS-MSSA. Core genome phylogeny showed that the HS-MSSA strain shared a common ancestry with the European MRSA clone. We report herein the genomic features of an MSSA lineage with novel genotype previously not reported elsewhere.

Detection, molecular characterization, and antibiogram of multi-drug resistant and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolated from pets and pet owners in Malaysia

BACKGROUND

The emergence of multidrug-resistant strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MDRSA) in animals and humans with continuous contact are a great zoonotic concern.

AIMS

This cross-sectional study was performed to investigate the carriage rate, genotypic characteristics, and to determine the antibiogram of S. aureus isolated from pets and pet owners in Malaysia.

METHODS

Nasal and oral swab samples from 40 cats, 30 dogs, and 70 pet owners were collected through convenient sampling. Presumptive colonies on mannitol salt agar were subjected to biochemical identification. S. aureus and MRSA were confirmed by PCR detection of nuc and mecA genes, respectively. Molecular profiles for antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes in S. aureus were also determined. The antibiogram was carried out via Kirby-Bauer test using 18 antibiotics.

RESULTS

17.5% of cats, 20% of dogs, and 27% of pet owners were S. aureus positive. MRSA was also detected in dogs, and pet owners. S. aureus isolates displayed high resistance against penicillin (72.7%), and amoxicillin/clavulanate (66.7%). 39.4% of S. aureus isolates showed multidrug-resistance traits, phenotypically. Molecular characterization of S. aureus revealed the presence of mecA, tetk, tetL, ermA, ermB, ermC, msrA, scn, chp, sak, sep, and sea genes.

CONCLUSION

This study showed the emergence of MRSA and MDRSA in pets and pet owners in Malaysia. The antibiogram findings showed resistance of S. aureus to multiple antibiotics. Furthermore, molecular analysis of immune evasion cluster (IEC) strongly suggests the spread of animal-adapted S. aureus lineages among pets and pet owners.

A Review on Antistaphylococcal Secondary Metabolites from Basidiomycetes

Fungi are a rich source of secondary metabolites with several pharmacological activities such as antifungal, antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer to name a few. Due to the large number of diverse structured chemical compounds they produce, fungi from the phyla Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Muccoromycota have been intensively studied for isolation of bioactive compounds. Basidiomycetes-derived secondary metabolites are known as a promising source of antibacterial compounds with activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The continued emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a major challenge to patient health as it leads to higher morbidity and mortality, higher hospital-stay duration and substantial economic burden in global healthcare sector. One of the key culprits for AMR crisis is Staphylococcus aureus causing community-acquired infections as the pathogen develops resistance towards multiple antibiotics. The recent emergence of community strains of S. aureus harbouring methicillin-resistant (MRSA), vancomycin-intermediate (VISA) and vancomycin-resistant (VRSA) genes associated with increased virulence is challenging. Despite the few significant developments in antibiotic research, successful MRSA therapeutic options are still needed to reduce the use of scanty and expensive second-line treatments. This paper provides an overview of findings from various studies on antibacterial secondary metabolites from basidiomycetes, with a special focus on antistaphylococcal activity.

Distribution of sasX, qacA/B and mupA genes and determination of genetic relatedness of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among clinical isolates and nasal swab samples from the same patients in a hospital in Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

This study determined the distribution of sasX, qacA/B and mupA genes from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolated from clinical samples and nasal swab samples of the same patients and analysed their genetic relatedness.

METHODS

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect the presence of sasX, qacA/B and mupA genes from 47 paired MRSA isolates. A paired isolate was defined as one nasal swab (colonising) isolate and clinical isolate that caused infection in the same patient. 22 selected paired isolates were subjected to multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The genetic relatedness among the isolates and association between the putative genes with epidemic sequence types (STs) were investigated.

RESULTS

7 (14.9%, n = 14) paired isolates were positive for the sasX gene. qacA/B genes were positive in 7.4% (n = 7) of the isolates, from three paired isolates and one clinical isolate whose paired colonising isolate was negative. The paired sample of three patients were positive for both genes. The mupA gene was not detected in all the isolates. MLST revealed two epidemic STs, ST22 and ST239, and a novel ST4649. sasX and qacA/B genes were found in ST239 in 29.5% (n = 13) and 13.6% (n = 6) of cases, respectively. Gene co-existence occurred in 13.6% (n = 6) of MRSA ST239 and 2.3% (n = 1) of MRSA ST4649.

CONCLUSION

sasX and qacA/B genes were present in the MRSA isolates, while the mupA gene was undetected. ST22 and ST239 were the major MRSA clones. The circulating MRSA genotypes conferred different virulence and resistance determinants in our healthcare settings.

Staphylococcus aureus including MRSA nasal carriage among hospital exposed and unexposed medical students

Introduction:

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common human pathogen causing a wide range of infections. It is estimated that S.aureus colonizes the anterior nares in approximately 31% of the general population at any given time. The incidence of community acquired & hospital acquired S. aureus has been increasing over the past few decades, predominantly due to continuous upsurge in the drug resistant isolates. Moreover, globally the incidence of methicillin resistant S.aureus (MRSA) is progressively increasing. Hence, it would be imperative to screen all healthcare workers, interns and admitted patients for MRSA carriage and to treat all those who are found positive for the same. With the above background, the current study was undertaken to investigate the carrier rate of S. aureus (including MRSA) among hospital unexposed & exposed medical students.

Methods:

A total of 181 medical students of Veer Chandra Singh Garhwali Government Institute of Medical Sciences & Research, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand. Study participants were broadly divided into two groups: hospital exposed group (n=107) and hospital unexposed group (n=74). Nasal swabs were obtained & cultured for the detection of S. aureus. Congo red agar and 0.1% Crystal Violet Assay were performed to observe the ability to form in vitro biofilm by S. aureus.

Results:

Out of total 181 medical students 29.28% were found to be healthy carrier of S. aureus. Among the hospital exposed group 37.38% and among hospital unexposed group 17.57% were found to be healthy carrier of S. aureus. Only one student (hospital exposed group) was found to be positive for MRSA. Beta-lactamase production was noted in 90.57% strains of S. aureus while the significant rate of slime layer production was observed in 73.58% of strains.

Conclusion:

Prevalence of S. aureus nasal carriage increases with the duration of exposure to the hospital environment. The nasal carriage of S. aureus in medical students indicate the potential danger of dissemination of S. aureus including MRSA from them to the hospitalized patients which in turn complicates the treatment of same.

Biofilm Inhibition and Eradication Properties of Medicinal Plant Essential Oils against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clinical Isolates

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen that poses a high risk to patients due to the development of biofilm. Biofilms, are complex biological systems difficult to treat by conventional antibiotic therapy, which contributes to >80% of humans infections. In this report, we examined the antibacterial activity of Origanum majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus zygis medicinal plant essential oils against MRSA clinical isolates using disc diffusion and MIC methods. Moreover, biofilm inhibition and eradication activities of oils were evaluated by crystal violet. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis revealed variations between oils in terms of component numbers in addition to their percentages. Antibacterial activity testing showed a strong effect of these oils against MRSA isolates, and T. zygis had the highest activity succeeded by O. majorana and R. officinalis. Investigated oils demonstrated high biofilm inhibition and eradication actions, with the percentage of inhibition ranging from 10.20 to 95.91%, and the percentage of eradication ranging from 12.65 to 98.01%. O. majorana oil had the highest biofilm inhibition and eradication activities. Accordingly, oils revealed powerful antibacterial and antibiofilm activities against MRSA isolates and could be a good alternative for antibiotics substitution.

A Systemic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis Reporting the Prevalence and Impact of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection in India

Aim and objective

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to assess the prevalence, burden and epidemiology of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). This systemic review was also aimed to highlight the challenges in the diagnosis and management of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in India (for all age groups). We also examined the published literature on the available treatment options and the role of prevention in the management of MRSA in India. By summarizing the currently available data, our objectives were to highlight the need for the prevention of MRSA infections and also emphasize the role of vaccination in the prevention of MRSA infections in India.

Methodology

Electronic databases such as PubMed and databases of the National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources and Indian Council of Medical Research Embase were searched for relevant literature published from 2005/01/01 to 2020/05/13 in English language, according to the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. A manual search was also conducted using the key term "MRSA 'or' Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus 'and' India." An independent reviewer extracted data from the studies using a structured Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, and a meta-analysis of proportion for MRSA prevalence with a corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for all included individual studies were performed.

Result

A total of 34 studies involving 16 237 patients were included in the final meta-analysis. The pooled proportion of patients with MRSA infection was 26.8% (95% CI: 23.2%-30.7%). The MRSA infection was more prevalent among male patients (60.4%; 95% CI: 53.9%-66.5%) as compared to female patients (39.6%; 95% CI: 33.5%-46.1%), while the prevalence of MRSA was higher among adults (18 years and above; 32%; 95% CI: 5%-80%) in comparison to pediatric patients (0-18 years; 68%; 95% CI: 20%-94.8%). The degree of heterogeneity was found to be significant.

Conclusion

The prevalence of MRSA in India was relatively high at 27% with a higher proportion observed among men aged >18 years. The high prevalence of MRSA infections in India necessitates the implementation of surveillance and preventive measures to combat the spread of MRSA in both hospital and community settings.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia, 2003-2015: Comparative evaluation of changing trends in molecular epidemiology and clinical outcomes of infections

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a prominent pathogen causing invasive infections such as bacteraemia. The continued excessive use of antibiotics to treat MRSA infections has resulted in the evolution of antimicrobial resistant of S. aureus. This study aims to perform a comparative evaluation of changing trends in molecular epidemiology of MRSA and clinical characteristics of patients. This study shows that ST22-MRSA-IV has gradually replaced ST239-MRSA-III as the predominant MRSA clone in the tertiary teaching hospital studied. Independent predictors of mortality among patients included devices in situ at the time of infection, pre-exposure to macrolides, catheter-related bloodstream infection and mono-microbial infection. Hence, our study affirmed community-associated MRSA, which was previously identified from individuals without any exposure to healthcare settings, has now emerged in healthcare settings, causing healthcare-associated MRSA infections.

Molecular Detection of Panton Valentine Leukocidin Toxin in Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from Kiambu County, Kenya

Panton-Valentine leukocidin gene is produced by Staphylococcus aureus, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates as a pore-forming toxin is largely responsible for skin and soft tissue illnesses. MRSA produces PVL toxins through lukS and lukF proteins causing tissue necrosis by damaging membrane of the defense cells. Presence of PVL toxin was tested from the 54 S. aureus clinical isolates obtained from Thika and Kiambu Level 5 Hospitals, in Kiambu County, Kenya, by Geno Type® MRSA assay (Hain Life Science, Nehren, Germany). DNA was isolated from freshly harvested bacterial cultures by spin column using Geno Type DNA isolation kit. The detection of PVL toxins was performed by amplification of genomic DNA and by reverse hybridization that identifies PVL genes using Geno Type MRSA kit. Out of 138 samples that were collected from patients in Kiambu County, 54 S. aureus isolates were obtained, of which 14 (25.9%; 95% CI = 11.9-38.9) samples had PVL toxins. The isolates that were obtained from the female patients had a higher PVL toxin prevalence of 35.7%, while the isolates collected from the male patients had a lower prevalence of 15.4% (P = 0.09). The pediatrics department had the highest PVL gene prevalence compared to outpatient department and surgical units (P = 0.08). However, the age groups of patients and the hospital attended by patients showed no significant difference in terms of PVL gene prevalence (P = 0.26). Therefore, the patients' gender and hospital units were not significantly associated with PVL gene prevalence (P = 0.08). This study shows that PVL positive isolates occur in the sampled hospitals in the county and female as well as children must be taken into consideration among patients with wound infections when isolating S. aureus.

Evaluation of various phenotypic methods with genotypic screening for detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Background

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the common opportunistic gram-positive pathogens which are often associated with nosocomial infections. Detection of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has become complicated due to the complex phenotypic and genomic pattern.

Objective

To evaluate the sensitivity and specificity pattern of various phenotypic methods used in screening mec genes harboring MRSA.

Methods

Clinical isolates of S. aureus were collected from diagnostic centers in Tamil Nadu. Phenotypic identification methods such as Minimal Inhibitory Concentration for oxacillin, oxacillin screen agar (OSA), oxacillin disk diffusion, and cefoxitin disk diffusion (CFD) tests were compared. The clinical isolates were classified into MRSA and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the mecA gene.

Result

Out of 50 S. aureus, 21 were found to be MRSA based on the presence of the mecA gene. All 21 mecA-positive isolates were found to be resistant through minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and CFD test, having a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 52% and 62%, respectively. OSA and oxacillin disk tests were found to have a sensitivity of 86% and specificity of 48% and 52%, respectively.

Conclusion

The combination of two phenotypic methods, CFD and oxacillin MIC, can be used for the detection of MRSA in clinical laboratories.

Anti-MRSA Activity of Actinomycin X2 and Collismycin A Produced by Streptomyces globisporus WA5-2-37 From the Intestinal Tract of American Cockroach (Periplaneta americana)

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is recognized as one of the serious pathogen that causes acquired infections worldwide. Its emerging need to discover novel, safe and potent anti-MRSA drugs. In this study, primary screening by anti-MRSA activity assay found one strain WA5-2-37 isolated from the intestinal tract of Periplaneta americana, exhibited great activity against MRSA ATCC 43300. The strain WA5-2-37 produced actinomycin X₂ and collismycin A which showed strong inhibition of MRSA with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 0.25 and 8 μg/mL. The structures of the pure compounds were elucidated by analysis of mass spectrometry (MS), ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The strain WA5-2-37 was considered as Streptomyces globisporus on the basis of morphological characteristics, genotypic data, and phylogenetic analysis. This is the first reported naturally occurring strain of S. globisporus isolated from the intestinal tract of P. americana, whereas it has almost been found from plants, marine, and soil previously. Moreover, S. globisporus has not been reported to produce any anti-MRSA substances previously, such as actinomycin X₂ and collismycin A. In conclusion, the insect-derived strain of S. globisporus WA5-2-37 was considered of great potential as a new strain of producing actinomycin X₂, collismycin A or other anti-MRSA compounds.

Molecular epidemiology and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., and Streptococcus spp. in Africa: a systematic review from a One Health perspective

A systematic review of antibiotic-resistant Gram-positive bacteria in Africa from a One Health perspective is lacking. Here, we report result from a search for English-language articles on the resistance mechanisms and clonality of Gram-positive bacteria in Africa between 2007 and 2019 reported in PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and African Journals OnLine; 172 studies from 22 different African countries were identified. Resistance genes, such as mecA, erm(B), erm(C), tet(M), tet(K), tet(L), vanB, vanA, vanC, and tet(O), were found to be common. Staphylococcus spp., Enterococcus spp., and Streptococcus spp. were the main species reported by the studies, with clones such as Staphylococcus aureus ST5 (n = 218 isolates), ST8 (n = 127 isolates), ST80 (n = 133 isolates), and ST88 (n = 117 isolates), and mobile genetic elements such as IS16 (n = 28 isolates), IS256 (n = 96), Tn916 (n = 107 isolates), and SCCmec (n = 4437 isolates) identified. SCCmec IV (n = 747 isolates) was predominant, followed by SCCmec III (n = 305 isolates), SCCmec II (n = 163 isolates), SCCmec V (n = 135 isolates), and SCCmec I (n = 79 isolates). Resistance to penicillin (n = 5926 isolates), tetracycline (n = 5300 isolates), erythromycin (n = 5151 isolates), rifampicin (n = 3823 isolates), gentamycin (n = 3494 isolates), sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (n = 3089 isolates), and ciprofloxacin (n = 2746 isolates) was common in most reports from 22 countries. Clonal dissemination of resistance across countries and between humans, animals, and the environment was observed. Resistance rates ranged from 1.4% to 100% for 15 of the studies; 10 were One Health-related studies. Strict infection control measures, antimicrobial stewardship, and periodic One Health epidemiological surveillance studies are needed to monitor and contain the threat of increasing antibiotic resistance in Africa.

Molecular characterisation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from patients at a tertiary care hospital in Hyderabad, South India

Context

Infections with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) greatly influence clinical outcome. Molecular characterisation of MRSA can help to predict their spread and to institute treatment and hospital protocols.

Aim

The aim of this study is to understand the diversity of MRSA in a tertiary care hospital in Hyderabad, India.

Settings and Design

Samples collected at Gandhi Medical College, Hyderabad, and designed to assess hospital-or community-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA or CA-MRSA).

Subjects and Methods

MRSA were subjected to antibiotic susceptibility testing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), spa typing, multi-locus sequence typing and staphylococcal cassette chromosome-mec (SCCmec) typing.

Statistical Analysis Used

Discriminatory index and 95% confidence interval.

Results

Of the 30 MRSA, (a) 18 and 12 were HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA, respectively, and (b) 23.3% and 6.6% displayed induced clindamycin and intermediate vancomycin resistance, respectively. Genetic diversity was evident from the presence of (a) 20 pulsotypes, (b) eight spa types, with the predominance of t064 (n = 9) and (c) seven sequence types (ST), with the preponderance of ST22 and ST8 (9 each). ST22 and ST8 were the most prevalent among HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA, respectively. SCCmec type IV was the most frequent (n = 8). 44.4% of HA-MRSA belonged to SCCmec IV and V, whereas 33.3% of CA-MRSA belonged to SCCmec I and III; 33.3% (5/15) of the isolates harbouring the pvl gene belonged to SCCmec IVC/H.

Conclusions

ST8 was a dominant type along with other previously reported types ST22, ST239, and ST772 from India. The observations highlight the prevalence of genetically diverse clonal populations of MRSA, suggesting potential multiple origins.

Relationship between biofilm gene expression with antimicrobial resistance pattern and clinical specimen type based on sequence types (STs) of methicillin-resistant S. aureus

The ica genes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) play an important role in biofilm formation. The aim of this study is to define effect of antibiotic resistance and clinical specimens to the expression of ica genes based on their sequence types (STs) and clonal complex (CC). One-hundred (100) S. aureus strain were collected from two teaching therapeutic centers in Hamedan, Iran. Then, the PCR, qPCR, and MLST were used to characterize strains. The results indicated that 29 (29%), 15 (15%), and 5 (5%) strain were strong, mediate, weak biofilm producer, respectively, and the icaA (17%) and icaC (14%) genes were the most abundant. However, two unique STs (3667, 491) in Iran were reported and ST30 and ST11 were the most abundant STs and CC30 and CC5 were observed among MRSA and MSSA strains. High activity in ica locus was observed among strains collected from wound and catheter strains. Also, expression level of icaA gene increased in all strains except ST30 and ST491. Moreover, the highest expression level was observed in CC1, CC7, and CC11. Likewise, activity of the icaC gene was only observed in CC5. Furthermore, the expression of all ica genes in CC5 was significantly correlated with the type of biofilm and the clinical sample. In this study demonstrated that the frequency distribution of STs and CCs in different strains of MRSA was higher than methicillin-sensitive strains. Also, the type of clinical specimen and expression of ica genes played an important role in this abundance.

Tigecycline and inducible clindamycin resistance in clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Terengganu, Malaysia

The spread of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is a public health concern. The inducible macrolide-lincosamide-streptogrammin B (iMLS_B ) phenotype (or inducible clindamycin resistance) is associated with false clindamycin susceptibility in routine laboratory testing and may lead to treatment failure. Tigecycline resistance remains rare in S. aureus worldwide. This study aims to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of clinical isolates of S. aureus obtained from the main tertiary hospital in Terengganu state, Malaysia, from July 2016 to June 2017. The antimicrobial susceptibilities of 90 methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 109 methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) isolates were determined by disc diffusion with the iMLS_B phenotype determined by D-test. Multidrug resistance (MDR) and the iMLS_B phenotype were more prevalent in MRSA (84.4 and 46.7  %, respectively) compared to MSSA isolates. All five tigecycline-resistant isolates were MRSA. The high incidence of MDR and the iMLS_B phenotype and the emergence of tigecycline resistance in the Terengganu S. aureus isolates warrants continuous vigilance.

Staphylococcus aureus Infections in Malaysia: A Review of Antimicrobial Resistance and Characteristics of the Clinical Isolates, 1990-2017

Staphylococcus aureus is an important nosocomial pathogen and its multidrug resistant strains, particularly methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), poses a serious threat to public health due to its limited therapeutic options. The increasing MRSA resistance towards vancomycin, which is the current drug of last resort, gives a great challenge to the treatment and management of MRSA infections. While vancomycin resistance among Malaysian MRSA isolates has yet to be documented, a case of vancomycin resistant S. aureus has been reported in our neighboring country, Indonesia. In this review, we present the antimicrobial resistance profiles of S. aureus clinical isolates in Malaysia with data obtained from the Malaysian National Surveillance on Antimicrobial Resistance (NSAR) reports as well as various peer-reviewed published records spanning a period of nearly three decades (1990-2017). We also review the clonal types and characteristics of Malaysian S. aureus isolates, where hospital-associated (HA) MRSA isolates tend to carry staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) type III and were of sequence type (ST)239, whereas community-associated (CA) isolates are mostly SCCmec type IV/V and ST30. More comprehensive surveillance data that include molecular epidemiological data would enable further in-depth understanding of Malaysian S. aureus isolates.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and anti-MRSA activities of extracts of some medicinal plants: A brief review

The increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant infection causing microorganisms has become a significant burden globally. Despite the efforts of pharmaceuticals in producing relatively new antimicrobial drugs, they have resulted in a high rate of mortality, disability and diseases across the world especially in developing countries. Supporting this claim was the report of the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) who estimated that over 2 million illnesses and 23,000 deaths per year are attributable to antibiotic resistant pathogens in the United States. They include Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus (VISA), Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA), Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), Extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) producing gram-negative bacilli, Multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (MDRSP), Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) and Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. For MRSA, resistance is as a result of Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) strains that have acquired Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) which carries mecA gene. The gene encodes the penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a) which confers resistance to all β-lactam antibiotics. Vancomycin was previously the widely preferred drug for the treatment of MRSA infections. It is no longer the case with the emergence of S. aureus strains with reduced vancomycin sensitivity limiting the conventional treatment options for MRSA infections to very scanty expensive drugs. Presently, many researchers have reported the antibacterial activity of many plant extracts on MRSA. Hence, these medicinal plants might be promising candidates for treatment of MRSA infections. This work is a brief review on Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and the anti-MRSA activities of extracts of selected medicinal plants.

Predominance of ST22-MRSA-IV Clone and Emergence of Clones for Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clinical Isolates Collected from a Tertiary Teaching Hospital Over a Two-Year Period

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most common nosocomial pathogens, causing mild to severe infections. This study aimed to determine the genotypic and phenotypic characteristics of clinical MRSA isolates collected from a teaching hospital from 2014 - 2015. These isolates were genotyped by multilocus sequence typing, staphylococcal cassette chromosomal mec (SCCmec) typing, virulence genes detection, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis; they were phenotyped based on their antibiotics susceptibility profiles. The most prevalent sequence type was ST22. ST3547 was identified from a blood isolate from 2015. Three SCCmec types (III in 26.26%, IV in 70.71%, and V in 3.03% isolates) were detected. Agr type I, II, and III were also detected among the isolates. The most prevalent virulence genes found were hemolysin (100%) and intracellular adhesion (91.9%). At least one staphylococcal enterotoxin was detected in 83 (83.8%) isolates. All the isolates were susceptible to vancomycin (minimum inhibitory concentration ≤ 2 μg/mL). Statistical analysis revealed a significant increase in hypertension (p = 0.035), dyslipidemia and obesity (p = 0.046), and previous exposure to any quinolone (p = 0.010) cases over the two-year period. The emergence and circulation of community-associated MRSA variants were observed in our hospital.

Streptomyces as a Prominent Resource of Future Anti-MRSA Drugs

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) pose a significant health threat as they tend to cause severe infections in vulnerable populations and are difficult to treat due to a limited range of effective antibiotics and also their ability to form biofilm. These organisms were once limited to hospital acquired infections but are now widely present in the community and even in animals. Furthermore, these organisms are constantly evolving to develop resistance to more antibiotics. This results in a need for new clinically useful antibiotics and one potential source are the Streptomyces which have already been the source of several anti-MRSA drugs including vancomycin. There remain large numbers of Streptomyces potentially undiscovered in underexplored regions such as mangrove, deserts, marine, and freshwater environments as well as endophytes. Organisms from these regions also face significant challenges to survival which often result in the production of novel bioactive compounds, several of which have already shown promise in drug development. We review the various mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in MRSA and all the known compounds isolated from Streptomyces with anti-MRSA activity with a focus on those from underexplored regions. The isolation of the full array of compounds Streptomyces are potentially capable of producing in the laboratory has proven a challenge, we also review techniques that have been used to overcome this obstacle including genetic cluster analysis. Additionally, we review the in vivo work done thus far with promising compounds of Streptomyces origin as well as the animal models that could be used for this work.

Membrane-Active Amphipathic Peptide WRL3 with in Vitro Antibiofilm Capability and in Vivo Efficacy in Treating Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Burn Wound Infections

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become increasingly prevalent in hospitals, clinics, and the community. MRSA can cause significant and even lethal infections, especially in skin burn wounds. The currently available topical agents have largely failed to eliminate MRSA infections due to resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new and effective approaches for treating MRSA. Here, we show that a novel engineered amphipathic peptide, WRL3 (WLRAFRRLVRRLARGLRR-NH2), exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against MRSA, even in the presence of various salts or serum. The cell selectivity of WRL3 was demonstrated by its ability to specifically eliminate MRSA cells over host cells in a coculture model. Additionally, WRL3 showed a synergistic effect against MRSA when combined with ceftriaxone and effectively inhibited sessile biofilm bacteria growth leading to a reduction in biomass. Fluorescent measurements and microscopic observations of live bacterial cells and artificial membranes revealed that WRL3 exerted its bactericidal activity possibly by destroying the bacterial membrane. In vivo studies indicate that WRL3 is able to control proliferation of MRSA in wound tissue and reduce bioburden and provides a more favorable environment for wound healing. Collectively, our data suggest that WRL3 has enormous potential as a novel antimicrobial agent for the treatment of clinical MRSA infections of skin burn wounds.

Humoral immune consequences of Staphylococcus aureus ST239-associated bacteremia

The humoral immune responses against 46 different staphylococcal antigens in 27 bacteremia patients infected by clonally related methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains of a single sequence type (ST) 239 were investigated. A group of non-infected patients (n = 31) hospitalized for different reasons served as controls. All strains were confirmed as ST 239 by S. aureus and mecA-specific PCR, spa, and multi-locus sequence typing (MLST). In each bacteremia patient, a unique pattern of S. aureus antigen-specific immune responses after infection was observed. Antibody levels among bacteremia patients were significantly higher than controls for HlgB (P = 0.001), LukD (P = 0.009), LukF (P = 0.0001), SEA (P = 0.0001), SEB (P = 0.011), SEC (P = 0.010), SEQ (P = 0.049), IsaA (P = 0.043), IsdA (P = 0.038), IsdH (P = 0.01), SdrD (P = 0.001), SdrE (P = 0.046), EsxA (P = 0.0001), and SA0104 (P = 0.0001). On the other hand, the antibody levels were significantly higher among controls for SSL3 (P = 0.009), SSL9 (P = 0.002), and SSL10 (P = 0.007) when the IgG level on the day of infection was compared with that measured on the day of admission. Diversity was observed in the immune response against the antigens. However, a set of antigens (IsaA, IsdA, IsdH, SdrD, and HlgB) triggered a similar type of immune response in different individuals. We suggest that these antigens could be considered when developing a multi-component (passive) vaccine. SEA and/or its specific antibodies seem to play a critical role during ST239 MRSA bacteremia and SEA-targeted therapy may be a strategy to be considered.

Inhibition of growth and biofilm formation of clinical bacterial isolates by NiO nanoparticles synthesized from Eucalyptus globulus plants

Nanotechnology based therapeutics has emerged as a promising approach for augmenting the activity of existing antimicrobials due to the unique physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles (NPs). Nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) have been suggested as prospective antibacterial and antitumor agent. In this study, NiO-NPs have been synthesized by a green approach using Eucalyptus globulus leaf extract and assessed for their bactericidal activity. The morphology and purity of synthesized NiO-NPs determined through various spectroscopic techniques like UV-Visible, FT-IR, XRD, EDX and electron microscopy differed considerably. The synthesized NiO-NPs were pleomorphic varying in size between 10 and 20 nm. The XRD analysis revealed the average size of NiO-NPs as 19 nm. The UV-Vis spectroscopic data showed a strong SPR of NiO-NPs with a characteristic spectral peak at 396 nm. The FTIR data revealed various functional moieties like C=C, C-N, C-H and O-H which elucidate the role of leaf biomolecules in capping and dispersal of NiO-NPs. The bioactivity assay revealed the antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity of NiO-NPs against ESβL (+) E. coli, P. aeruginosa, methicillin sensitive and resistant S. aureus. Growth inhibition assay demonstrated time and NiO-NPs concentration dependent decrease in the viability of treated cells. NiO-NPs induced biofilm inhibition was revealed by a sharp increase in characteristic red fluorescence of PI, while SEM images of NiO-NPs treated cells were irregular shrink and distorted with obvious depressions/indentations. The results suggested significant antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of NiO-NPs which may play an important role in the management of infectious diseases affecting human health.

A small proportion of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia, compared to healthcare-associated cases, in two South African provinces

We compared the proportion of cases of community-associated and healthcare-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA, respectively) bacteraemia among patients at five hospitals in the Gauteng and Western Cape provinces in South Africa and described the molecular characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility trends. This was a cross-sectional study using data collected by enhanced surveillance for S. aureus bacteraemia. A total of 2511 cases of S. aureus bacteraemia were identified from January 2013 to January 2016. Among 1914 cases of S. aureus, 557 (29.1%) cases were identified as MRSA infection. Forty-four cases (44/1914 [2.3%] of all S. aureus cases) were considered CA-MRSA infection and 513/1914 (26.8% of all cases) had HA-MRSA infection; the majority were neonates. CA-MRSA constituted 7.9% (44/557) of all cases of MRSA infection. Staphylococcus aureus isolates demonstrated significantly reduced susceptibility to the following classes of antimicrobial agents: macrolides, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides and cotrimoxazole, in 2015 compared to 2013 (p < 0.05). Of the 557 MRSA isolates, 484 (87%) were typed for SCCmec elements and spa types: the most common SCCmec type was type III (n = 236, 48.76%), followed by type IV (n = 144, 29.76%). The most common spa types were t037 (n = 229, 47.31%) and t1257 (n = 90, 18.60%). Of 28 isolates selected for multilocus sequence typing (MLST), the most common sequence types (STs) were ST239 and ST612 of clonal complex 8 (CC8) (n = 8 each) and a novel ST (ST4121) was obtained for one isolate. This study demonstrates that S. aureus bacteraemia is common in South African academic centres and characterised by HA-MRSA SCCmec types III and IV. A small proportion of CA-MRSA cases were caused by a few different sequence types.