Application of a combined global positioning and heart rate monitoring system in jumper horses during an official competition - A preliminary study

Dynamics of training and acute exercise-induced shifts in muscular glucose transporter (GLUT) 4, 8, and 12 expression in locomotion versus posture muscles in healthy horses

Important changes in glucose transporter (GLUT) expression should be expected if the glucose influx plays a pivotal role in fuelling or connecting metabolic pathways that are upregulated in response to exercise. The aim was to assess GLUT4, 8, and 12 dynamics in response to training and acute exercise. Methods: Sixteen untrained Standardbred mares (3-4 year) performed an incremental SET at the start and end of 8 weeks harness training. M. pectoralis (PM) and M. vastus lateralis (VL) muscle biopsies were taken before and after each SET, allowing for comparing rest and acute samples in untrained (UT) and trained (T) condition using Western Blot for GLUT quantification and Image Pro v.10 for Blot analysis. Data were normalized against GAPDH. Basal GLUT-levels of PM versus VL were analysed with the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test. The effect of acute exercise or training was assessed using the Friedman test with a post hoc Dunn's. Results: Basal GLUT4 and GLUT12 protein expression were significantly higher in the VL compared to the PM (PGLUT4 = 0.031 and PGLUT12 = 0.002). Training had no effect on basal GLUT4 expression, neither in the VL (p > 0.9999), nor the PM (p > 0.9999). However, acute exercise in trained condition significantly decreased GLUT4 expression in the VL (p = 0.0148). Neither training nor acute exercise significantly changed total GLUT8 protein expression. Training significantly decreased total GLUT12 protein expression in rest biopsies, only visible in the VL (p = 0.0359). This decrease was even more prominent in the VL after acute exercise in trained condition (PVL = 0.0025). Conclusion: The important changes seen in GLUT12 expression downregulation, both in response to training and acute exercise in the horse, the downregulation of GLUT4 expression after acute exercise in trained condition and the lack of differential shifts in GLUT8 expression in any of the studied conditions, questions the importance of glucose as substrate to fuel training and exercise in healthy horses. These findings encourage to further explore alternative fuels for their involvement in equine muscular energetics.

EFFECT OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN HEMOGASOMETRIC AND ELECTROLYTIC PROFILES OF YOUNG MANGALARGA MARCHADOR HORSES BEGINNING TRAINING FOR GAIT COMPETITIONS

This study aimed to analyze effect of physical exercise in hemogasometric and electrolytic profiles of young Mangalarga Marchador horses beginning training for gait competitions. Six Mangalarga Marchador gaited horses with 6 months of training were evaluated. The ages ranged from three and a half to five years and included four stallions and two mares, with mean (±S.D.) body weight of 435±30Kg. Venous blood samples were collected from the horses, rectal temperature and HR were measured before and immediately after the gait test, and blood samples were used for hemogasometric and laboratory analyses. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used in the statistical analysis, assigning statistical significance for values of (p≤0.05). Physical effort significantly affected HR (p≤0.027), temperature (T) (p≤0.028), oxygen pressure (pO₂) (p≤0.027), oxygen saturation (sO₂) (p≤0.046), calcium (Ca²⁺) (p≤0.046), and glucose levels (GLI) (p≤0.028). The heart rate, temperature, and pO_2, sO₂, Ca²⁺, and glucose levels were affected by exercise. There was no considerable dehydration in these horses, making it clear that, at this level of effort, they did not enter a state of, indicating that the animals, even young horses, were well conditioned to the submaximal effort required in gaiting tests. The horses showed good adaptation to exercise and did not enter a state of fatigue with the effort made, indicating that the animals in this study received adequate training and could perform the type of exercise proposed, characterized by a submaximal effort.

Measuring Biochemical Variables and Serum Amyloid A (SAA) in Working Mules in Central Italy

According to FAO reports, the global mule population counts about 9 million mules. This hybrid cross of a male donkey and a female horse is mainly used for draft purposes because they are thought to be strong and hardy animals. Most consider mules to be less susceptible to disease and fatigue compared to horses. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of fieldwork on biochemical variables and serum amyloid A in working mules. Blood samples were collected from 10 healthy, female, working mules before and after 8 h of fieldwork. According to statistical analysis, a significant influence (p < 0.05) of fieldwork was found on mules’ electrolyte profile with increased levels of sodium, chloride, and calcium, as well as on blood urea nitrogen and creatinine. After a day of fieldwork, serum sodium, chloride, calcium, urea, and creatinine concentrations were increased, supporting decreases in body water and renal blood flow. However, without comparison to a group of mules that were not exercised yet maintained under similar ambient conditions, it is uncertain whether these changes can be attributed to exercise. Further, no change in SAA concentration was found after exercise, indicating that the work performed did not result in systemic inflammation.

Relationship between Thoroughbred workloads in racing and the fatigue life of equine subchondral bone

Fatigue life (FL) is the number of cycles of load sustained by a material before failure, and is dependent on the load magnitude. For athletes, ‘cycles’ translates to number of strides, with load proportional to speed. To improve previous investigations estimating workload from distance, we used speed (m/s, x) per stride collected using 5 Hz GPS/800 Hz accelerometer sensors as a proxy for limb load to investigate factors associated with FL in a Thoroughbred race start model over 25,234 race starts, using a combination of mathematical and regression modelling. Fore-limb vertical force (NKg^-1) was estimated using a published equation: Vertical force = 2.778 + 2.1376x − 0.0535x². Joint load (σ) was estimated based on the vertical force, scaled according to the maximum speed and defined experimental loads for the expected variation in load distribution across a joint surface (54-90 MPa). Percentage FL (%FL) was estimated using a published equation for cycles to failure (N_f) summed across each race start: N_f = 10^{(σ-134.2)/−14.1.} Multivariable mixed-effects linear regression models were generated on %FL, adjusting for horse-level clustering, presented as coefficients; 95%CI. Scaled to the highest joint load, individual starts accrued a mean of 9.34%FL (sd. 1.64). Older age (coef. 0.03; 0.002–0.04), longer race-distances (non-linear power transformed), and firmer track surfaces (ref. Heavy 10: Good 3 coef. 2.37; 2.26–2.48) were associated with greater %FL, and males accrued less than females (p < 0.01). Most variables associated with %FL are reported risk factors for injury. Monitoring strides in racehorses may therefore allow identification of horses at risk, enabling early detection of injury.

Monitoring Performance in Show Jumping Horses: Validity of Non-specific and Discipline-specific Field Exercise Tests for a Practicable Assessment of Aerobic Performance

Show jumping is a highly specialized equestrian discipline that requires technical skill but also power and fitness. Monitoring the horses’ aerobic performance is therefore essential in order to verify whether the training has induced the desired cardiovascular and muscular adaptations. This study therefore aimed at evaluating the validity of non-specific and discipline-specific field exercise tests for objective evaluation of aerobic performance in show jumpers. For this purpose, data obtained from horses competing at Junior and Young Rider level during show jumping competitions as well as field exercise tests were retrospectively analyzed. The effect of the level of difficulty, the horses’ age, the penalty score and the horses’ previous level of performance on blood lactate concentrations after show jumping competitions (100 observations in 49 horses) was evaluated by linear mixed effects models (horse as random effect). Estimated marginal means significantly increased from 140 (4.1 mmol/L) to 150 cm (5.2 mmol/L) classes (P = 0.02). Furthermore, post-exercise lactate values significantly increased with the horses’ age (P = 0.001). Another group of 12 horses performed a standardized incremental field exercise test on a track (SET_track), a standardized show jumping course (SET_course) and a standardized grid exercise (SET_grid) each on three consecutive days. Indices of aerobic performance, derived from the SET_track [velocity at a heart rate of 140 bpm (V₁₄₀) and at a lactate concentration of 2 mmol/L (V_La2)] were highly correlated with heart rate (V₁₄₀: r = −0.75, P = 0.005; V_La2: r =−0.66, P = 0.02) and lactate (V₁₄₀: r = −0.73, P = 0.02; V_La2: r = −0.72, P = 0.02) in response to SET_course as well as heart rate during SET_grid (V₁₄₀: r = −0.73, P = 0.02; V_La2: r = −0.76, P = 0.01). Subjective rating of muscular fatigue was significantly correlated to the mean heart rate during SET_course (r = −0.64, P = 0.05) and SET_grid (r = −0.74, P = 0.02) but not to the aerobic indices calculated from SET_track. Besides non-specific incremental field tests, performance monitoring in show jumpers should therefore also include discipline-specific tests that more closely reflect the internal load induced by show jumping competitions.

How Much Energy Vaquejada Horses Spend in a Field Simulation Test?

Vaquejada is a high-intensity and short-duration exercise in which helper horses (HH) are responsible to keep a bull running in a line while pull horses (PH) work to put the bull down after 100 m of running. The purpose of this study was to quantify and compare energy expenditures (EE), transport costs (COT) and metabolic energy requirements (Pmet) of horses used in Vaquejada. Thus, eight Quarter Horses, in randomly formed pairs, performed a vaquejada simulation test (VST), which consisted of three races on a sand track (130-150 m), with a 5-min interval between them. All horses used an integrated heart rate (HR) and GPS monitoring system (V800, Polar Electro) and, from these data, EE, COT and Pmet were calculated using the formulas: EE (J/kg/min) = 0.0566 × HR^1.9955, COT = (HR-35)/kg/m × 10³ and Pmet = (HR-35)/min/kg. Blood samples were collected for lactate analysis at rest, immediately after the first, second and third race and after 30 min of recovery. Data obtained were submitted to one-way ANOVA and Tukey tests (p ≤ 0.05). In VST, HH had higher EE and higher HR at trot; while PH presented higher EE and HR at canter. Finally, considering total VST, PH had higher EE and COT, while HH had higher Pmet. Lactate was higher in PH. Despite practicing the same sport, PH and HH should be considered distinct athletes, and these must be considered to set up appropriate physical and nutritional programs, which will lead to better performance and guarantees of well-being.

Accuracy of a heart rate monitor for calculating heart rate variability parameters in exercising horses

Heart rate is evaluated in exercising horses to monitor the level of fitness to exercise, and it is usually acquired using heart rate monitors (HRM) or telemetric electrocardiograms (ECG). While HRM are commonly available and easy-to-use for horse's owners, ECG is a more expensive equipment requiring user's experience. Interest for heart rate variability (HRV) in horses is increasing for both research and clinical purposes. HRV is usually calculated from interbeat intervals (IBI) obtained by ECG. The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of an HRM to detect IBI for the calculation of HRV in both resting and exercising horses. Simultaneous ECG and HRM recordings were performed on 13 horses and ponies under normal training conditions for at least 45 minutes. IBI from ECG were corrected using a dedicated software. IBI from HRM were exported without correction. Two HRV-parameters were calculated on both recordings for resting and exercising periods: the standard deviation of R-R intervals (SDRR) and the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD). Agreement and concordance between the two systems were determined using Bland-Altman plot and Lin's correlation coefficient, respectively. Effects of variables were consequently assessed. For both HRV-parameters during resting and exercising periods, the means of the differences between the two systems were lower than 0.47 ms with a correlation coefficient higher than 0.999. Height, weight and body condition score had no effect on the results. The studied HRM could be of interest as easy-to-use device for obtaining HRV-parameters SDRR and RMSSD in resting and exercising horses.

Air Speed to Increase Rate of Cool Out for Horses After Intense Exercise

Cooling out horses is a common practice after intense exercise. Typical cooling procedures include both walking and drenching (often with scraping). The cool out is performed to ensure the horses physiologic responses returned to a baseline range as quickly as possible. The use of water in cool out provides the greatest potential for removing heat from the animals. However, adding air velocities that can increase evaporation rates from the horses can potentially increase the rate of cool out; thereby reducing the time until the horses' physiologic measurements return to baseline. This study measured the rate of cool out for 7 Thoroughbreds, which were run on the track for 1 or 1.5 miles. Animals were provided a combination of walking and drenching in addition to 3 fan treatments no fan, fan directed at lateral side, and fan directed at posterior. Physiologic responses were analyzed using the Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) procedure and while no significant differences were found in the rate of cool out, trends indicated both rectal temperature (P = .10) and heart rate (P = .11) returned to baseline more quickly with the addition of a fan.

Peripheral Modulators of the Central Fatigue Development and Their Relationship with Athletic Performance in Jumper Horses

The current study aimed to investigate whether peripheral modulators of serotoninergic function and neurohumoral factors' changes in athletic horses during an official jumping competition, and to evaluate their relationship with the physical performance of competing horses. From 7 Italian Saddle mares (6-9 years; mean body weight 440 ± 15 kg), performing the same standardized warm-up and jumping course during an official class, heart rate (HR) was monitored throughout the competition. Rectal temperature (RT) measurement, blood lactate and glucose concentration, serum tryptophan, leucine, valine, the tryptophan/branched-chain amino-acids ratio (Try/BCAAs), dopamine, prolactin, and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) were assessed before the exercise event (T0), at the end of the competition stage (5 min ± 10 s following the cessation of the exercise, TPOST5), and 30 min after the end of competition (TPOST30). Highest HR values were recorded during the course and at the outbound (p < 0.0001); blood lactate concentration and RT increased after exercise with respect to the rest condition (p < 0.0001). Lower leucine and valine levels (p < 0.01), and higher tryptophan, Try/BCAAs ratio, and NEFAs values were found at TPOST5 and TPOST30 with respect to T0 (p < 0.0001). A higher prolactin concentration was found at TPOST5 and TPOST30 compared to T0 (p < 0.0001), whereas dopamine showed decreased values after exercise compared to rest (p < 0.0001). Statistically significant correlations among the peripheral indices of serotoninergic function, neurohumoral factors, and athletic performance parameters were found throughout the monitoring period. The findings provide indirect evidence that the serotoninergic system may be involved in fatigue during jumper exercise under a stressful situation, such as competition, in which, in addition to physical effort, athletic horses exhibit more passive behavior.

Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability of Amateur Show Jumping Horses Competing on Different Levels

Heart rate is one of the gold standards used to assess the workload level and fitness of horses. However, when slight differences need to be detected, it is not sensitive enough. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the effect of competition level and phase of exercise on the heart rate and heart rate variability parameters in show jumpers. Fourteen horses were examined competing on three different levels: 100 cm (n = 4), 120 cm (n = 6), and 130 cm (n = 4). The length of work (min); average and maximum heart rate; average, maximum and minimum RR intervals (ms); SD1 and SD2 (ms); RMSSD (ms) and pNN50 (%); VLF, LF, HF (%) were analyzed. The measurement was divided into four phases: warm-up, resting period, show jumping course riding, and cool-down. The level of the course had no significant effect on average and maximum heart rates throughout the entire exercise. The maximum RR interval, RMSSD, pNN50, SD1, and %VLF values were significantly different (p < 0.05) in horses competing at 100 cm height from those competing in the 120 cm group. The SD1 value was sensitive for the level of competition, while the SD2 parameter was sensitive for detecting exercise phases. In conclusion, heart rate variability parameters are more sensitive for detecting smaller differences in workload than heart rate alone in lower-level show jumpers.

Using Different Combinations of Body-Mounted IMU Sensors to Estimate Speed of Horses-A Machine Learning Approach

Speed is an essential parameter in biomechanical analysis and general locomotion research. It is possible to estimate the speed using global positioning systems (GPS) or inertial measurement units (IMUs). However, GPS requires a consistent signal connection to satellites, and errors accumulate during IMU signals integration. In an attempt to overcome these issues, we have investigated the possibility of estimating the horse speed by developing machine learning (ML) models using the signals from seven body-mounted IMUs. Since motion patterns extracted from IMU signals are different between breeds and gaits, we trained the models based on data from 40 Icelandic and Franches-Montagnes horses during walk, trot, tölt, pace, and canter. In addition, we studied the estimation accuracy between IMU locations on the body (sacrum, withers, head, and limbs). The models were evaluated per gait and were compared between ML algorithms and IMU location. The model yielded the highest estimation accuracy of speed (RMSE = 0.25 m/s) within equine and most of human speed estimation literature. In conclusion, highly accurate horse speed estimation models, independent of IMU(s) location on-body and gait, were developed using ML.

Dynamic Change of Free Serum L-carnitine Concentration in Relation to Age, Sex, and Exercise in Anglo-Arabian Thoroughbred Horses

The physiological role of L-carnitine in equine species is worthy of investigation; however, the systemic content of free L-carnitine and its dynamic change in growing foals as well as in exercising horses are still poorly investigated. In this study, the influence of age and exercise on free serum L-carnitine levels was evaluated in equine species. Ten foals were monitored from 6 up to 18 months of age (group 1), whereas 60 horses were divided in six groups in accordance with their age: group 2, 2-year-old; group 3, 3-year-old; group 4, 4-year-old; group 5, 5-year-old; group 6, 6-year-old; group 7, 7-year-old. To assess the age and sex effect on free serum L-carnitine values, blood samples were collected from foals and horses. Adult horses (groups 2-7) were subjected to a simulate 1,660-m race, and blood samples were collected before the simulate race (T_PRE), within 10 minutes (T_POST10) from the end of race, and after 30 minutes (T_POST30) from the end of race. The amino acid levels were influenced by age (P < .0001) in foals and horses. Decreased levels of amino acid were observed at T_POST10 with respect to T_PRE and T_POST30. (P < .001). The findings suggest that the biosynthetic pathway of L-carnitine is organizing and adapting to the metabolic needs of skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue in the course of growth. L-carnitine could play a role for the provision of energy to the exercising muscles. Further studies are needed to evaluate possible beneficial effects of L-carnitine during growing phase and on parameters of equine physical performance.

Exercise Induced Changes in Salivary and Serum Metabolome in Trained Standardbred, Assessed by 1H-NMR

In the present study, data related to the metabolomics of saliva and serum in trained standardbred horses are provided for the first time. Metabolomic analysis allows to analyze all the metabolites within selected biofluids, providing a better understanding of biochemistry modifications related to exercise. On the basis of the current advances observed in metabolomic research on human athletes, we aimed to investigate the metabolites’ profile of serum and saliva samples collected from healthy standardbred horses and the relationship with physical exercise. Twelve trained standardbred horses were sampled for blood and saliva before (T₀) and immediately after (T₁) standardized exercise. Metabolomic analysis of both samples was performed by ¹H-NMR spectroscopy. Forty-six metabolites in serum and 62 metabolites in saliva were detected, including alcohols, amino acids, organic acids, carbohydrates and purine derivatives. Twenty-six and 14 metabolites resulted to be significantly changed between T₀ and T₁ in serum and saliva, respectively. The findings of 2-hydroxyisobutyrate and 3-hydroxybutyrate in serum and GABA in equine saliva, as well as their modifications following exercise, provide new insights about the physiology of exercise in athletic horses. Glycerol might represent a novel biomarker for fitness evaluation in sport horses.

Global Positioning System-Determined and Stopwatch-Determined Running Speeds of Horses Differ

Global positioning systems (GPS) have become very popular tools to determine the running speed of horses. However, information on the accuracy of these measurements is scarce. The objective of this study was to examine the accuracy of speed determinations using GPS. For this purpose, the running speeds determined using the GPS of the Polar M400 Equine heart rate meter (G-speed) and a stopwatch (W-speed; manual division of the measured time over the distance run) were compared. The hypothesis was that the speeds determined by both methods would be the same. Eleven horses ran a standardized exercise test (SET) with 130 m laps, and 8 horses ran a SET with 250 m laps in two different sandy riding arenas (one was indoor). The length of the laps was determined with a distance measuring wheel and marked with red traffic cones for the riders to maintain an accurate course. The SETs consisted of five intervals at increasing speeds each. The duration of the intervals was between 3 and 6 minutes. Horses ran a defined number of laps in each interval to reach the prescribed durations. Data were analyzed using a paired Student's t-test; P < .05 denoted significance. W-speeds differed from G-speeds for all intervals in both riding arenas (P between .01 and .001). G-speed was lower for each interval. With increasing speed, the difference between the two methods augmented. The hypothesis was rejected, therefore questioning the accuracy of the Polar M400 in determining speed under the conditions of this study.

Plasmapheresis Effect on Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Athletic Horses Subjected to Exercise

To evaluate the effect of plasmapheresis on clinical, hematological, and biochemical parameters after exercise, a plasmapheresis session was realized on six jumping horses (plasmapheresis group) that underwent three consecutive days of physical graded exercise. The control group (n = 6) went through the same exercise but not subjected to the plasmapheresis session. Seventeen milliliters of plasma/kg of body weight was harvested from each horse. The procedure was well tolerated by the horses. The plasmapheresis leads to a significant increase of the hemoglobin, hematocrit, red blood cell, white blood cell, and lymphocytes counts. Plasmapheresis induced a very significant decrease (P < .001) of albumin and globulin levels and of total protein, which were reestablished 24 hours later. Plasmapheresis also generated a very significant increase (P < .001) in sodium levels and a significant decline of potassium (P < .05) and calcium (P < .01) levels. Several other biochemical variables remained unchanged. Results also showed that, after a significant rise of lactate, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatine kinase levels which are subsequent to the exercise, the plasmapheresis session induced a very significant continuous decrease (P < .001) of these parameters. The present work has demonstrated that the plasmapheresis is able to modify the physiology after exercise and to affect both the hematology and the biochemistry of the blood hematobiochemical parameters in horses subjected to physical exercise.

Heart Rate Monitoring in Mangalarga Marchador Horses During a Field Marcha Test

Measurement of heart rate (HR) and velocity before, during, and after training exercises under field conditions indicates health and fitness level and intensity of imposed physical effort and allows rapid adjustments in training and nutritional protocols, improving welfare of athletic horses. The aim of this study was to monitor HR of Mangalarga Marchador horses during a marcha field test. Fifteen Mangalarga Marchador horses were evaluated during an aerobic exercise (marcha) for 40 minutes using a HR monitor system with GPS (Polar RS800CX-G3). Results were analyzed through Polar ProTrainer 5 to record maximal heart rate (HRmax), average HR (HRmed), maximal speed (Vmax), average speed (Vmed), distance and HR and V oscillations throughout the physical effort. After 30 minutes of recovery, all animals were clinically re-evaluated. Variables were analyzed for normality with Kolmogorov-Smirnov test followed by mean comparison using ANOVA and Tukey test, considering P < .05. During the 40-minute exercise, Vmax was 3.75 ± 0.39 m/s, in a distance of 7.15 ± 1.06 km. Marcha gait influenced significantly HR (P < .0001) and, after 2 minutes of exercise, all animals reached values for speed and HR that did not change until the end of exercise trial. Results also showed a predominance of aerobic activity as animals worked mainly using 60%-70% of HRmax (∼140 beats/min). Heart rate monitoring during marcha test was a useful method to evaluate physical conditioning of athletic horses and intensity of exercise, which is helpful to improve performance and guarantee welfare of athletic horses kept under tropical conditions.

Effect of physical exercise on cortisol concentration and neutrophil oxygen metabolism in peripheral blood of horses

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of regular physical exercise on cortisol concentration and oxygen-dependent bactericidal activity of neutrophils in peripheral blood in recreational and competitive sport horses (racehorses - Ra, trotters - T, jumping horses - J, driving horses - D). The study was conducted on 55 clinically healthy horses. Blood samples were collected from the external jugular vein three times: before exercise, immediately after exercise, and after 30-min rest. Blood samples were subjected to haematological examination, cortisol concentration was determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA) and neutrophil oxygen metabolism of neutrophils was determined using a chemiluminescence method. The analysis showed that cortisol concentration was significantly higher (P<0.05) post-exercise only in the blood of sport horses. This finding, along with a significant correlation (P<0.00005) with the heart and respiratory rates, suggests that the magnitude of cortisol secretion is associated with the intensity and duration of exercise. The relatively small post-exercise increase in cortisol concentration during different exercises of horses resulted in a transient increase of chemiluminescence activity of neutrophils, mainly in D (P<0.00001) and J horses (P<0.01). In the studied groups analysis of the correlation between cortisol concentration and other parameters showed significant correlation only in the case of the CL total in T (P<0.02) and D horses (P<0.004). It is therefore apparent that in a limited concentration, this hormone may stimulate the activity of these cells, although the effect of other neurohormonal factors cannot be excluded. This result confirms that regular and moderate training loads have a beneficial effect on the immunological status of horses.

Use of technological innovations in broadening the application of equine exercise physiology

The quadrennial International Conference on Equine Exercise Physiology (ICEEP) allows focused presentations of a variety of horse exercise- and performance-related research data in cardiorespiratory, muscle, biomechanics, nutrition, genomics, and applied physiology. The most diverse section of the ICEEP meeting has been termed variously ‘Applied Exercise Physiology’ (ICEEP 8 and 9), ‘Applied Physiology: Training Methods, Exercise Testing and Selection’ (ICEEP 7), or ‘Applied Physiology of Athletic Performance’ (ICEEP 6 and earlier). The next ICEEP meeting is scheduled to be held in Australia in 2018. In this subspeciality of equine exercise physiology, scientists attempt to apply or put into practical field use the techniques and tools developed in the more basic sciences in order to assess the performance, training, and injury of horses working and performing under true, non-laboratory conditions. The real test of the value of this subspeciality will be the increased application and sustainability of the use of laboratory techniques in the assessment of equine athletes in field settings. This review summarises exercise physiology findings prior to the widespread use of equine laboratory treadmills which have tethered investigators to the laboratory, and explains and illustrates newer, more portable, often digital technological developments which have allowed investigations to move out of the laboratory and back to the field setting where horses train and compete on a daily basis.

Quantification of warm-up patterns in elite showjumping horses over three consecutive days: a descriptive study

There is very little reported information on warm-up practices in showjumping horses. The objective was to quantify warm-up jumping patterns/duration in a competition (field) environment in showjumping horses. Ten mixed-breed elite showjumping horses were assessed at a three-day training session. Riders warmed-up as they would normally for an elite competition and jumped at least one round of a 15-fence (135-145 cm) course on each day. Fence type/height, number of jumping efforts and lead take-off/landing limbs during warm-up were recorded. Rider global-positioning-system and inertial-motion-sensors recorded speed, time spent in each pace/rein plus stride length and stride duration during warm-up and course. Heart rate (HR) was recorded when the horse was resting in its stable and for the duration of the ridden exercise. Appropriate paired statistical tests were used to compare variables between days, and between warm-up and the round(s). Mean warm-up duration, time in each pace and on each rein did not differ within rider between days, however, there were inter-rider differences (mean warm-up duration = 18 min; range = 12-27 min). Number of jumping efforts and fence type/height did not differ between days. During warm-up, there was no preference in canter lead when approaching fences. However, on departure there was a preferred canter lead, plus jump landing and leaving lead limb asymmetry (left canter lead predominating in all cases). Horses cantered slower, with a shorter stride length and a longer stride duration during warm-up compared to when jumping the round (speed – warm-up: 4.21±0.09 m/s; round: 5.53±0.15 m/s; stride length – warm-up: 2.59±0.06 m; round: 3.16±0.08 m; stride duration – warm-up: 0.62±0.02 s; round: 0.58±0.03 s). Mean resting HR significantly decreased on consecutive study days. Mean, peak and final HR during warm-up did not significantly change between days. Results provide novel information on warm-up patterns in a competition (field) environment for elite horses, and suggest that showjumping horses may be warmed-up asymmetrically.