Effects of crocin on brain oxidative damage and aversive memory in a 6-OHDA model of Parkinson’s disease

Neuropharmacological insights into Gardenia jasminoides Ellis: Harnessing therapeutic potential for central nervous system disorders

BACKGROUND

In China, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GJE) has a longstanding history of application. The Ministry of Health has listed it as one of the first pharmaceutical or food resources. In ethnic, traditional, and folk medicine, GJE has been used to treat fever and cold and relieve nervous anxiety. Recent studies have confirmed the significant efficacy of GJE for treating central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and major depressive disorder; however, GJE has not been systematically evaluated.

PURPOSE

This research systematically summarizes global studies on the use of GJE for treating CNS disorders and explores the potential applications and underlying mechanisms via intestinal flora analysis and network pharmacology, aiming to establish a scientific basis for innovative CNS disorder treatment with GJE.

METHODS

The PRISMA guidelines were used, and electronic databases such as the Web of Science, PubMed, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure were searched using the following search terms: "Gardenia jasminoides Ellis" with "central nervous system disease," "neuroprotection," "Alzheimer's disease," "Parkinson's disease," "ischemic stroke," "Epilepsy," and "major depressive disorder." The published literature up to September 2023 was searched to obtain relevant information on the application of GJE for treating CNS disorders.

RESULTS

There has been an increase in research on the material formulation and mechanisms of action of GJE for treating CNS disorders, with marked effects on CNS disorder treatment in different countries and regions. We summarized the research results related to the role of GJE in vitro and in vivo via multitargeted interventions in response to the complex mechanisms of action of CNS disorders.

CONCLUSION

We systematically reviewed the research progress on traditional treatment for GJE and preclinical mechanisms of CNS disorders and explored the potential of optimizing network pharmacology strategies and intestinal flora analysis to elucidate the mechanisms of action of GJE. The remarkable therapeutic efficacy of GJE, an important resource in traditional medicine, has been well documented in the literature, highlighting its significant medicinal potential.

Effects of crocin on inflammatory biomarkers and mental health status in patients with multiple sclerosis: A randomized, double-blinded clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS), as a demyelinating disease correlated with inflammation and oxidative stress, affects the central nervous system and causes a wide range of complications, including psychiatric disorders. Considering the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties associated with the bioactive components of saffron, such as crocin (trans-crocetin bis(β-d-gentiobiosyl) ester), and their potential impact on ameliorating psychiatric symptoms, our study aimed to investigate the effect of crocin on biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and mental health, e.g., depression and anxiety in individuals with MS.

METHOD

Patients with MS were randomized into two groups, taking either 15 mg crocin tablets twice a day (n = 25; 30 mg/day) or placebo tablets (n = 25) for 8 weeks. The valid and reliable Beck depression and anxiety scale questionnaire was recorded, and fasting blood samples were collected to measure biomarkers, including high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitric oxide (NO) at baseline and week 8 following the intervention.

RESULTS

The data analysis using ANCOVA showed that supplementation with crocin for 8 weeks significantly lowered hs-CRP levels (p-value= 0.01). In addition, within-group comparisons showed crocin significantly decreased anxiety (p-value= 0.01). However, crocin did not affect serum MDA and NO after 8 weeks of intervention.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that crocin may keep promise in attenuating inflammation, evidenced by reducing hs-CRP in patients with MS. However, supplementation for 8 weeks may not be sufficient to improve mental health, and future clinical studies with higher sample sizes and various doses and durations are recommended.

Crocin attenuates the lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation via expression of AIM2 and NLRP1 inflammasome in an experimental model of Parkinson's disease

The underlying mechanisms of inflammasome activation and the following dopaminergic neuron loss caused by chronic neuroinflammation remain entirely unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impact of crocin on the inflammasome complex within an experimental model of Parkinson's disease (PD) using male Wistar rats. PD was induced by the stereotaxic injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and crocin was intraperitoneally administrated one week before the lesion, and then treatment continued for 21 days. Open field (OF) and elevated plus maze tests were applied for behavioral assays. Furthermore, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and immunostaining were performed on whole brain tissue, while dissected substantia nigra (SN) was used for immunoblotting and real-time PCR to evaluate compartments involved in PD. The time spent in the center of test was diminished in the LPS group, while treatment with 30 mg/kg of crocin significantly increased it. H&E staining showed a significant increase in cell infiltration at the site of LPS injection, which was ameliorated upon crocin treatment. Notably, crocin-treated animals showed a reduced number of caspase-1 and IL-1β positive cells, whereas the number of positive cells was increased in the LPS group (P < 0.05). A significant decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression was also found in the LPS group, while crocin treatment significantly elevated its expression. IL-1β, IL-18, NLRP1, and AIM2 genes expression significantly increased in the LPS group. On the other hand, treatment with 30 mg/kg of crocin significantly downregulated the expression levels of these genes along with NLRP1 (P < 0.05). In summary, our findings suggest that crocin reduces neuroinflammation in PD by diminishing IL-1β and caspase-1 levels, potentially by inhibiting the expression of AIM2 and NLRP1 genes.

Interaction of aerobic exercise and crocin improves memory, learning and hypocampic tau and neurotrophins gene expression in rats treated with trimethytin as a model of Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by progressive cognitive decline and a reduction in hippocampal neurotrophins, in which trimethytin (TMT) infusion causes tangles and neuronal dysfunction, creating an AD-like model in rats. Previous studies have demonstrated that crocin, which has anti-inflammatory properties, can enhance learning, memory acquisition, and cognitive behavior. This study aimed to assess the combined impact of aerobic exercise and crocin on memory, learning, and hippocampal Tau and neurotrophins gene expression in AD-like model rats.

METHODS

Forty male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into five groups: (1) healthy control, (2) Alzheimer's control, (3) endurance training, (4) crocin consumption, and (5) endurance training + crocin. Alzheimer's induction was achieved in groups 2-5 through intraperitoneal injection of 8 mg/kg TMT. Rats in groups 3 and 5 engaged in treadmill running three sessions per week, 15-30 min per session, at a speed of 15-20 m/min for eight weeks, and groups 4 and 5 received daily crocin supplementation of 25 mg/kg.

RESULTS

Alzheimer's induction with TMT showed significant reduction in memory, learning, NGF, BDNF, and TrkB gene expression, and increase in tau gene expression (all p < 0.05). Notably, endurance training and crocin consumption separately significantly increased memory, learning, NGF, BDNF, and TrkB gene expression while significantly decreasing tau gene expression (all p < 0.05). Importantly, combined endurance training with crocin yielded the most profound effects on memory (p = 0.001), NGF (p = 0.002), BDNF (p = 0.001), and TrkB (p = 0.003) gene expression (p < 0.005), as well as a reduction in tau gene expression (p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

These findings underscore the possible impact of endurance training, particularly when coupled with crocin, on enhancing memory, learning, and neurotrophin gene expression and reducing tau gene expression in Alzheimer's rats. These results highlight the possibility of synergistic interventions for improved therapeutic outcomes.

Protective effect of crocin on cuprizone-induced model of multiple sclerosis in mice

Crocin is the main bioactive components of the saffron which has positive role in the nervous system; however, its neuroprotective activity is not fully elicited. So, the aim of the current study was to determine effects of the crocin on reflexive motor and anti-depressive behaviors as well as serum and brain tissue antioxidant activities in cuprizone-induced (CPZ) model of multiple sclerosis (MS) mice. Forty male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned into 4 groups. Mice in the control group were received normal diet. In group 2, mice received normal diet and orally received crocin (100 mg/kg) 3 times per week for 5 weeks. In group 3, CPZ-induced demyelination was done by chew palate containing 0.2% (w/w) CPZ for 5 weeks. In group 4, mice feed CPZ containing diet and orally received crocin (100 mg/kg) three times per for 5 weeks. After determination of the MS signs, reflexive motor behavior and depressive tests were done. Also, serum and brain tissue antioxidant activity was determined. According to the data, CPZ had negative effects on hind-limb foot angle, hind- and front-limb suspension, surface righting, grip strength, and negative geotaxis while crocin improved it. Co-administration of the CPZ + crocin reversed effect of the CPZ on the reflexive motor behaviors. CPZ increased immobility time in the forced swimming test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST), while co-administration of the CPZ + crocin reversed effect of the CPZ on immobility time. CPZ decreased number of cross in open field test (OFT) and spending time on rotarod, while co-administration of the CPZ + crocin reversed effect of the CPZ. Malondialdehyde (MDA) production increased, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and total antioxidant status (TAS) levels decreased in serum and brain tissue of the mice treated with CPZ. Pretreatment with crocin decreased adverse effect of the CPZ on serum and brain tissue antioxidants. These results suggested crocin has protective effect against CPZ-induced MS in mice.

Feeding crocin ameliorate cognitive dysfunction, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress in rats

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the current study was to investigate the probable mechanism and effect of crocin on brain oxidative damage and memory deficits induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups consisting of one vehicle group (received normal saline), four groups included rats who received UCMS 4 weeks out of which three groups were pretreated with different doses of crocin (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg/day) concomitantly. To assess the pure effect of crocin, the last experimental group received a high dose of crocin (30 mg/kg/day) without exposure to the UCMS procedure. The behavioral tests including Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) were performed and eventually they were sacrificed for the estimation of biochemical parameters.

RESULTS

The increase in Malondialdehyde (MDA) as an oxidative stress indicator and nitrite levels in the hippocampus were observed in UCMS rats, along with memory deficits in behavioral tests including passive avoidance and Morris water maze (MWM) test. Moreover, treatment with crocin decreased MDA, nitrite, pro-inflammatory cytokine such as TNF-α, and pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease including amyloid-β (Aβ), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the hippocampus, whereas antioxidant agents including total thiol content, SOD, and catalase activity were increased. Also behavioral test demonstrated a positive effect of crocin on memory deficit induced by UCMS. Interlukin-10 as an important anti-inflammatory agent was increased as well. Interestingly, in some behavioral and biochemical findings, treatment with 30 mg/kg of crocin has given better results compared to vehicle group, which means the administration of crocin could have preventive effects on learning and memory impairment.

CONCLUSION

The present study strongly confirmed the positive effect of crocin and has the potential as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent that could improve memory impairment induced by UCMS.

Nitric oxide enhances resistance of Pleurotus eryngii to cadmium stress by alleviating oxidative damage and regulating of short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase family

The function and mechanism of nitric oxide (NO) in regulating Pleurotus eryngii biological response to cadmium (Cd) stress was evaluated by using anti-oxidation and short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) family analysis. The fresh biomass of P. eryngii mycelia sharply decreased after treatment with 50 µM Cd; the lipid peroxidation and H₂O₂ accumulation in P. eryngii were found responsible for it. Proper exogenous supply of NO (150 µM SNP) alleviated the oxidative damage induced by Cd stress in P. eryngii, which reduced the accumulation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and H₂O₂. The activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase) were significantly increased to deal with Cd stress when treated with SNP (150 µM), and the content of proline was also closely related to NO-mediated reduction of Cd toxicity. Moreover, SDR family members were widely involved in the response to Cd stress, especially PleSCH70 gene was observed for the first time in participating in NO-mediated enhancement of Cd tolerance in P. eryngii. Taken together, this study provides new insights in understanding the tolerance mechanisms of P. eryngii to heavy metal and lays a foundation for molecular breeding of P. eryngii to improve its tolerance to environmental stress.

Gut Bacteria Regulate the Pathogenesis of Huntington's Disease in Drosophila Model

Changes in the composition of gut microbiota are implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we investigated whether gut bacteria affect the progression of Huntington’s disease (HD) in transgenic Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) models expressing full-length or N-terminal fragments of human mutant huntingtin (HTT) protein. We find that elimination of commensal gut bacteria by antibiotics reduces the aggregation of amyloidogenic N-terminal fragments of HTT and delays the development of motor defects. Conversely, colonization of HD flies with Escherichia coli (E. coli), a known pathobiont of human gut with links to neurodegeneration and other morbidities, accelerates HTT aggregation, aggravates immobility, and shortens lifespan. Similar to antibiotics, treatment of HD flies with small compounds such as luteolin, a flavone, or crocin a beta-carotenoid, ameliorates disease phenotypes, and promotes survival. Crocin prevents colonization of E. coli in the gut and alters the levels of commensal bacteria, which may be linked to its protective effects. The opposing effects of E. coli and crocin on HTT aggregation, motor defects, and survival in transgenic Drosophila models support the involvement of gut-brain networks in the pathogenesis of HD.

An evaluation on potential anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocin

Crocin, an active ingredient derived from saffron, is one of the herbal components that has recently been considered by researchers. Crocin has been shown to have many anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and therefore can be used to treat various diseases. It has been shown that Crocin has a positive effect on the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and kidney disease. In addition, the role of this substance in COVID-19 pandemic has been identified. In this review article, we tried to have a comprehensive review of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocin in different diseases and different tissues. In conclusion, Crocin may be helpful in pathological conditions that are associated with inflammation and oxidative stress.

Thymol protects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurotoxicity in in vivo and in vitro model of Parkinson's disease via inhibiting oxidative stress

Background

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a multifactorial movement disorder with the progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal system that impairs patients’ movement ability. Oxidative stress has been found to affect the etiology and pathogenesis of PD. Thymol, a monoterpenic phenol, is one of the most important dietary constituents in thyme species. It has been used in traditional medicine and possesses some properties including antioxidant, free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory. In this study, in vitro and in vivo experiments were performed with the thymol in order to investigate its potential neuroprotective effects in models of PD.

Methods

The present study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of thymol in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced cellular and animal models of PD. 

Results

Post-treatment with thymol in vitro was found to protect PC12 cells from toxicity induced by 6-OHDA administration in a dose-dependent manner by (1) increasing cell viability and (2) reduction in intracellular reactive oxygen species, intracellular lipid peroxidation, and annexin-positive cells. In vivo, post-treatment with thymol was protective against neurodegenerative phenotypes associated with systemic administration of 6-OHDA. Results indicated that thymol improved the locomotor activity, catalepsy, akinesia, bradykinesia, and motor coordination and reduced the apomorphine-caused rotation in 6-OHDA-stimulated rats. Increased level of reduced glutathione content and a decreased level of MDA (malondialdehyde) in striatum were observed in the 6-OHDA rats post-treated with thymol.

Conclusions

Collectively, our findings suggest that thymol exerts protective effects, possibly related to an anti-oxidation mechanism, in these in vitro and in vivo models of Parkinson’s disease.

Therapeutic promise of carotenoids as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents in neurodegenerative disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis have various disease-specific causal factors and pathological features. A very common characteristic of NDs is oxidative stress (OS), which takes place due to the elevated generation of reactive oxygen species during the progression of NDs. Furthermore, the pathological condition of NDs including an increased level of protein aggregates can further lead to chronic inflammation because of the microglial activation. Carotenoids (CTs) are naturally occurring pigments that play a significant role in averting brain disorders. More than 750 CTs are present in nature, and they are widely available in plants, microorganisms, and animals. CTs are accountable for the red, yellow, and orange pigments in several animals and plants, and these colors usually indicate various types of CTs. CTs exert various bioactive properties because of its characteristic structure, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Due to the protective properties of CTs, levels of CTs in the human body have been markedly linked with the prevention and treatment of multiple diseases including NDs. In this review, we have summarized the relationship between OS, neuroinflammation, and NDs. In addition, we have also particularly focused on the antioxidants and anti-inflammatory properties of CTs in the management of NDs.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Source of Nutrients for Health and for the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric and Age-Related Diseases

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a medicinal plant, originally cultivated in the East and Middle East, and later in some Mediterranean countries. Saffron is obtained from the stigmas of the plant. Currently, the use of saffron is undergoing a revival. The medicinal virtues of saffron, its culinary use and its high added value have led to the clarification of its phytochemical profile and its biological and therapeutic characteristics. Saffron is rich in carotenoids and terpenes. The major products of saffron are crocins and crocetin (carotenoids) deriving from zeaxanthin, pirocrocin and safranal, which give it its taste and aroma, respectively. Saffron and its major compounds have powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. Anti-tumor properties have also been described. The goal of this review is to present the beneficial effects of saffron and its main constituent molecules on neuropsychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety and schizophrenia) as well as on the most frequent age-related diseases (cardiovascular, ocular and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as sarcopenia). Overall, the phytochemical profile of saffron confers many beneficial virtues on human health and, in particular, on the prevention of age-related diseases, which is a major asset reinforcing the interest for this medicinal plant.

Effects of the prenatal exposure to crocin in the expression of withdrawal syndrome on reflexive motor behaviors in mice offspring's

The aim of the current study was to determine effects of the prenatal exposure to crocin in the expression of withdrawal syndrome on reflexive motor behaviors in mice offspring's. Fourteen male mice and 56 adult female mice were randomly divided into seven groups as: control group (morphine-abstinent male and female); group 2, drug-naïve female and morphine-abstinent male; group 3, drug-naïve male and morphine-abstinent females; group 4, drug-naïve male and female. Groups 5-7, were similar to groups 2-4, except crocin (5 mg/kg) were injected to drug-naïve subjects. Following delivery, 20 pups from each litter were selected and behavior and reflexive motor behaviors were determined. Also, blood samples were taken to determine serum antioxidant activity. According to the results, immobility time significantly increased in offspring of the paternal + maternal exposed to morphine swimming test and tail suspension tests (P < 0.05) and significantly decreased in offspring of paternal + maternal exposed to morphine + crocin group (P < 0.05). Ambulation, surface righting, hind-limb suspension, grip strength and front limb suspension significantly decreased in offspring of the mice exposed to morphine (P < 0.05) and significantly improved in offspring of paternal + maternal exposed to morphine + crocin group (P < 0.05). Hind-limb foot angle and negative geotaxis significantly increased in mice with morphine-exposed offspring's (P < 0.05) while improved in offspring of paternal + maternal exposed to morphine + crocin group (P < 0.05). Prenatal exposure to morphine increased Malondialdehyde while decreased Superoxide dismutase, Glutathione peroxidase and total antioxidant status in mice offspring's (P < 0.05) and these results reversed by prenatal exposure to crocin (P < 0.05). In all studied factors, paternal + maternal exposed to morphine + crocin group had better results compared to the other crocin-received drug-naïve groups (P < 0.05). These results suggested prenatal exposure to crocin decreased morphine-induced adverse effect which paternal and maternal exposed to morphine + crocin had the highest prevention against these effects in mice offspring's.

The effect of Crocin on TFAM and PGC-1α expression and Catalase and Superoxide dismutase activities following cholestasis-induced neuroinflammation in the striatum of male Wistar rats

Bile secretion is a physiological function that is disrupted following Bile Duct Ligation (BDL) and induces cholestasis. Cholestasis is a bile flow reduction that induces apoptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation, and alters the expression of genes. Evidence shows the relationship between cholestasis and neuroinflammation. Cholestasis via attenuating mitochondrial biogenesis and anti-oxidant activity can induce neuroinflammation and apoptosis. Mitochondrial transcriptional factor A (TFAM) and Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) are involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, and TFAM, PGC-1α, Catalase (CAT), and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) have a role in upregulating antioxidant pathways. On the other hand, many studies have shown the neuroprotective effects of Crocin, the water-soluble carotenoid of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.). In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of Crocin on the level of TFAM, PGC-1α, CAT, and SOD following cholestasis-induced neuroinflammation in the rat's striatum. Cholestasis was induced by BDL surgery and administration of Crocin was intraperitoneal, at the dose of 30 mg/kg every day, 24 h after BDL surgery up to thirty days. The results showed that TFAM, PGC-1α, and SOD were decreased following cholestasis; while, CAT was increased. In addition, Crocin restored the effects of cholestasis on the level of TFAM, PGC-1α, and SOD. In conclusion, Crocin may have improvement effects on cholestasis-induced neuroinflammation in the rat's striatum.

The neuroprotective potential of carotenoids in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Despite advances in research on neurodegenerative diseases, the pathogenesis and treatment response of neurodegenerative diseases remain unclear. Recent studies revealed a significant role of carotenoids to treat neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this study was to systematically review the neuroprotective potential of carotenoids in vivo and in vitro and the molecular mechanisms and pathological factors contributing to major neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and stroke).

HYPOTHESIS

Carotenoids as therapeutic molecules to target neurodegenerative diseases.

RESULTS

Aggregation of toxic proteins, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, the excitotoxic pathway, and neuroinflammation were the major pathological factors contributing to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo studies supported the beneficiary role of carotenoids, namely lycopene, β-carotene, crocin, crocetin, lutein, fucoxanthin and astaxanthin in alleviating disease progression. These carotenoids provide neuroprotection by inhibition of neuro-inflammation, microglial activation, excitotoxic pathway, modulation of autophagy, attenuation of oxidative damage and activation of defensive antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, studies conducted on humans also demonstrated that dietary intake of carotenoids lowers the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.

CONCLUSION

Carotenoids may be used as drugs to prevent and treat neurodegenerative diseases. Although, the in vitro and in vivo results are encouraging, further well conducted clinical studies on humans are required to conclude about the full potential of neurodegenerative diseases.

Impact of copper oxide nanoparticles on the cerebral cortex of adult male albino rats and the potential protective role of crocin

The use of copper oxide nanoparticles (CUONPs) on a large-scale application is a reason for many health problems and morbidities involving most body tissues, particularly those of the nervous system. Crocin is the chemical ingredient primarily responsible for the color of saffron. It has different pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anticancer, and memory-improving activities. This study was conducted to elaborate the effects of CUONP exposureon the cerebellar cortical tissues of rats and explore the potential protecting role of crocin through biochemical, light microscopic, and ultrastructural examinations. Twenty four adult male albino rats were randomly divided into four equal groups: Group I (negative control); Group II (crocin-treated group; 30mg/kg body weight (BW) intraperitoneal (IP) crocin daily); Group III (CUONP-treatedgroup; 0.5-mg/kg BW IP CUONP daily); and Group IV (CUONP/crocin-treated group). After 14 days of the experiment, venous blood samples were collected to determine red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC), and hemoglobin (Hb) levels. Besides, serum malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were measured. Cerebellar tissue samples were examined under light and electron microscopy along with a histomorphological analysis. CUONPs induced oxidative/antioxidative imbalance as evidenced by a significant increase in serum MDA levels and decreased GPx and TAC activities. CUONPs caused a significant decrease in RBC and Hb levels and an increase in WBC count. Histopathological alterations in the cerebellar cortex were observed. The administration of crocin showed some protection against the toxic effects of CUONPs. Crocin is suggested to have a mitigating role on oxidative stress and structure alterations in the cerebellar tissues induced by CUONPs.

Study of the cardioprotective effects of crocin on Human Cardiac Myocyte cells and reduction of oxidative stress produced by aluminum phosphide poisoning

OBJECTIVES

The effects of Crocin as a cardioprotective material against Aluminum phosphide poisoning by reducing the oxidative stress is investigated.

METHODS

The level of biomarkers of oxidative stress (Catalase, Superoxide dismutase, Malondialdehyde and Protein carbonyl) were measured in the cell culture model on Human Cardiac Myocyte cells to detect the protective effect of crocin. Initially, to define the pure impact of aluminum phosphide poison and crocin on the heart cells, their effects on the biomarkers quantity in cell line were measured, separately, using the standard related kits. Later the effect of crocin with different concentration as a treatment on the oxidative stress biomarkers of the poisoned heart cells were monitored. Note that in pre-treatment case, the crocin was initially added to the cells before poisoning them. Data were analyzed using the analysis of variance method.

KEY FINDINGS

Results showed that crocin treatment reduced the aluminum phosphide (AlP) poisoning effect significantly. The treatment resulted in substantial deviation in the biomarkers of oxidative stress at the pre- and post-treatment phases for all groups. The oxidative markers values of the poisoned cells were recovered by crocin treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Crocin is proposed as a potentially powerful antioxidant to treat the cardiotoxicity caused by aluminum phosphide poisoning.

Novel Neuroprotective Potential of Crocin in Neurodegenerative Disorders: An Illustrated Mechanistic Review

Neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequently oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis that contribute to neuronal cytotoxicity and degeneration. Recent studies reported that crocin, a carotenoid chemical compound common in crocus and gardenia flowers, has protective effects in neurodegenerative disorders due to its anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties in the nervous system. This article reviews the new experimental, clinical, and pharmacological studies on the neuroprotective properties of crocin and its potential mechanisms to modulate metabolic oxidative stress and inflammation in neurodegenerative disorders.

Therapeutic potentials of crocin in medication of neurological disorders

Neurological sicknesses are serious, multifactorial, debilitating disorders that may cause neurodegeneration. Neuroprotection is the protection of the structure and capacity of neurons from affronts emerging from cell injuries instigated by an assortment of specialists or neurodegenerative diseases. Various neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and epilepsy, afflict many people worldwide, with increasing age representing the leading risk factor. Crocin is a natural carotenoid compound which was found to have therapeutic potentials in the management of the neurological disease. In this review, we focused on the restorative capabilities of Crocin as a neuroprotective agent. The general neuroprotective impact and the various conceivable basic components identified with Crocin have been examined. In light of the substantial proof indicating the neuro-pharmacological viability of Crocin to different exploratory standards, it is concluded that Crocin exerts direct antioxidant, antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activities by multiple signaling pathways. Besides, Crocin was found to elevate dopamine level in the brain during the experimental model of Parkinson's disease. Thus, this compound has been demonstrated to be a promising option for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, with few adverse effects. It ought to be further considered as a potential contender for neuro-therapeutics, concentrating on the mechanistic and clinical evidence for its effects.

The effect of crocin on memory, hippocampal acetylcholine level, and apoptosis in a rat model of cerebral ischemia

Although the memory- improving effect of crocin has been suggested by previous evidences, the association between this effect and hippocampal acetylcholine (Ach) level and apoptosis is not well investigated. This study aimed to determine the protective effects of crocin on memory, hippocampal Ach level, and apoptosis in a rat model of cerebral ischemia. Male Wistar rats were divided into sham group received saline, and other 3 groups underwent 4-vessel occlusion brain ischemia (4VOI), received oral administration of either saline or crocin in doses of 30 mg/day and 60 mg/day for 7 days. Outcomes were memory, determined by radial eight-arm maze (RAM) task and Morris water maze (MWM) test, Ach release in the dorsal hippocampus (evaluated by microdialysis-HPLC) and apoptosis (investigated by TUNEL assay). 4VOI impaired memory reduced dorsal hippocampus Ach level, and induced apoptosis. Crocin, significantly improved the memory (F = 343.20; P < 0.001 for RAM error choices and F = 182.5; P < 0.0001 for MWM), increased Ach level (F = 115.1; P < 0.001) and prevented hippocampal neuronal apoptosis (W = 183.50; P < 0.001) as compared statistically by ANOVA test. Crocin can be suggested as a promising therapy for ischemic cerebrovascular accidents by its memory preserving, Ach-increasing, and neuroprotective effects.

The effect of crocin supplementation on glycemic control, insulin resistance and active AMPK levels in patients with type 2 diabetes: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

Crocin as a carotenoid exerts anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, neuroprotective and cardioprotective effects. Besides, the increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its allied complications, and also patients' desire to use natural products for treating their diseases, led to the design of this study to evaluate the efficacy of crocin on glycemic control, insulin resistance and active adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) levels in patients with type-2 diabetes (T2D).

METHODS

In this clinical trial with a parallel-group design, 50 patients with T2D received either 15-mg crocin or placebo, twice daily, for 12 weeks. Anthropometric measurements, dietary intake, physical activity, blood pressure, glucose homeostasis parameters, active form of AMPK were assessed at the beginning and at the end of the study.

RESULTS

Compared with the placebo group, crocin improved fasting glucose level (P = 0.015), hemoglobin A1c (P = 0.045), plasma insulin level (P = 0.046), insulin resistance (P = 0.001), and insulin sensitivity (P = 0.001). Based on the within group analysis, crocin led to significant improvement in plasma levels of glucose, insulin, hemoglobin A1c, systolic blood pressure, insulin resistance and insulin sensitivity. The active form of AMPK did not change within and between groups after intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that crocin supplementation can improve glycemic control and insulin resistance in patients with T2D. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.Trial Registration This study has been registered at Clinicaltrial.gov with registration number NCT04163757.

Effects of Medicinal Plants and Flavonoids on Parkinson's Disease: A Review on Basic and Clinical Evidences

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder which is characterized by typical symptoms including gradual progressive muscle rigidity, tremor and loss of motor skills. Although there is no definitive cure for PD, the extract of some medicinal plants and their ingredients have been suggested to relieve its symptoms and to prevent disability in patients. This review is focused on therapeutic effects of some medicinal plants and their ingredients on PD. The findings presented in this review were collected from experimental and clinical studies in databases including PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar until the end of May 2019. The keywords "neurotoxicity " or "Parkinson’s disease" or "neuroprotective" and "Medicinal plants" and "Flavonoids" were searched. Based on the results of animal and clinical studies, the extract of medicinal plants and their components which are discussed in this review have neuro-protective effects against PD. These protective properties mainly are mediated through inhibition of dopamine metabolizing enzymes, reduction oxidant markers, increase of antioxidant agents and suppression of neuro-inflammation.

A Review of Potential Efficacy of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Cognitive Dysfunction and Seizures

Crocus sativus (saffron) is traditionally used to relieve several ailments. Experimental researches have also investigated applications of saffron and its active constituents for the treatment of a wide spectrum of disorders. This review discusses pharmacological/therapeutic properties of saffron and its main components on memory function, learning ability and seizures, to highlight their merit for alleviating these disorders. An extensive literature review was carried out using various databases including ISI Web of Knowledge, Medline/PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar, Embase, Biological Abstracts, and Chemical Abstracts. The growing body of evidence showed the value of saffron and its' components, alone, or in combination with the other pharmaceuticals, for improving learning and memory abilities and controlling seizures. These findings may provide pharmacological basis for the use of saffron in cognitive disturbance and epilepsy. However, further preclinical and clinical studies are necessary.

Effects of crocin in reducing DNA damage, inflammation, and oxidative stress in multiple sclerosis patients: A double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled trial

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the nerve cells, resulting in neurological disorders. Oxidative stress, free radicals, and neuritis have important roles in MS pathogenesis. Here, we aim to evaluate the effect of crocin on inflammatory markers, oxidative damage, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage in the blood of patients with MS. A total of 40 patients were divided into two groups, drug and placebo-treated groups, using random assignment. Participants of the intervention and control groups received two crocin capsules or placebo per day for 28 days, respectively. Findings revealed a significant decrease in the level of important pathogenic factors in MS, including lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin 17 as well as a significant increase in the total antioxidant capacity in the serum of patients treated with crocin compared with the placebo group. Our results suggest the beneficial and therapeutic effects of crocin in MS.

Therapeutic potency of crocin in the treatment of inflammatory diseases: Current status and perspective

Crocin is the major component of saffron, which is used in phytomedicine for the treatment of several diseases including diabetes, fatty liver, depression, menstruation disorders, and, of special interest in this review, inflammatory diseases. Promising selective anti-inflammatory properties of this pharmacological active component have been observed in several studies. Saffron has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory properties against several inflammatory diseases and can be used as a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of inflammatory diseases either alone or in combination with other standard anti-inflammatory agents. This review summarizes the protective role of saffron and its pharmacologically active constituents in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases including digestive diseases, dermatitis, asthma, atherosclerosis, and neurodegenerative diseases for a better understanding and hence a better management of these diseases.

Antioxidant Properties of Crocus Sativus L. and Its Constituents and Relevance to Neurodegenerative Diseases; Focus on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND

Reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species, which are collectively called reactive oxygen-nitrogen species, are the inevitable by-products of cellular metabolic redox reactions, such as oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, phagocytosis, reactions of biotransformation of exogenous and endogenous substrata in endoplasmic reticulum, eicosanoid synthesis, and redox reactions in the presence of metal with variable valence. Among medicinal plants, there is growing interest in Crocus Sativus L. It is a perennial, stemless herb, belonging to Iridaceae family, cultivated in various countries such as Greece, Italy, Spain, Israel, Morocco, Turkey, Iran, India, China, Egypt and Mexico.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to address the protective role of Crocus Sativus L. in neurodegeneration with an emphasis in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An electronic literature search was conducted by two of the authors from 1993 to August 2017. Original articles and systematic reviews (with or without meta-analysis), as well as case reports were selected. Titles and abstracts of papers were screened by a third reviewer to determine whether they met the eligibility criteria, and full texts of the selected articles were retrieved.

RESULTS

Hence, the authors focused on the literature concerning the role of Crocus Sativus L. on its anti-oxidant and neuroprotective properties.

CONCLUSION

Literature findings represented in current review herald promising results for using Crocus Sativus L. and/or its active constituents as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective agents.

Effects of carvacrol and physical exercise on motor and memory impairments associated with Parkinson's disease

The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of carvacrol and treadmill exercise on memory deficit, rotational behavior and oxidative stress biomarkers in a 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease. Wistar rats were treated with carvacrol at a dose of 25 mg/kg and/or ran on a treadmill for a week. Then, 6-OHDA was microinjected into the medial forebrain bundle and treatments continued for six more weeks. Aversive memory, rotational behavior and oxidative stress biomarkers were assessed at the end of week six. The 6-OHDA-lesioned group showed a significant increase in rotational behavior and a decrease in step-through latency in the passive avoidance test compared with the sham group. These behaviors were accompanied by increased lipid peroxidation levels and decreased total thiol concentration in the striatum and/or hippocampus of the hemiparkinsonian rats. Moreover, treatment with carvacrol and exercise reduced rotational behavior and improved aversive memory deficit, which was accompanied by decreased lipid peroxidation levels and increased total thiol concentration in the striatum and/or hippocampus. In conclusion, treatment with carvacrol and treadmill exercise ameliorated motor and memory deficits by modulating oxidative stress in the striatum and hippocampus of hemiparkinsonian rats. Therefore, the combination of carvacrol and treadmill exercise could be an effective therapeutic tool for treatment of neurobehavioral deficits in Parkinson's disease patients.

Moderating effects of crocin on some stress oxidative markers in rat brain following demyelination with ethidium bromide

Background

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Crocin on oxidative markers (GPx, SOD, MDA) in animal model of demyelination with Ethidium bromide (EB).

Methods

Female Wistar rats were assigned in to 4 groups; Sham, with no receiving any agent (Sham), Sham Operated group with injection of EB into the brain received no agent (SO), Sham Treatment group with injection of EB and receiving PBS as vehicle and Treatment group with injection of EB and receiving Crocin (100 mg/kg). Demyelination was induced by single dose injection of 10 μl of EB 0.1% into the Cisterna magna of the brain. Crocin was diluted and applied to each animal for 21 days, once per day gavage. The levels of oxidative markers (GPx, SOD and MDA) were measured by related standard kits. Data were analyzed by paired t-test and ANOVA with post hoc test.

Results

The results showed that crocin decreases the levels of GPx and SOD significantly as well as MDA level after 21 days (α ≤ 0.05). In addition, results showed that there were significant differences in the GPx, SOD and MDA levels between all groups at post treatment phase (α ≤ 0.05).

Conclusion

It can be concluded that crocin can moderate the level of oxidative markers after demyelination of the brain cells in MS cases. Due to this effect, crocin can be considered as an effective anti-oxidant in management of degenerative nervous system diseases.

Crocin may be useful to prevent or treatment of alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral sequels via modulation of CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK signaling pathway

The neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral consequences of alcohol are serious and offering therapeutic approaches for management of these types of neurodegeneration is one of the main concerns of researchers in this manner. Alcohol-stimulated oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation, with modulation of involved signaling pathway in neuroprotection, was reported previously. Neuroprotective strategy for management of alcohol induced neurodegeneration through a new generation neuroprotective agent and based on modulation of some neuroprotective signaling pathway such as CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK has always been superior to any other therapeutic interventions. Therefore, the introduction and development of potential new neuroprotective properties and clarification of their effects on major cell signaling such as CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK is necessitated. During recent years, using new neuroprotective compounds with therapeutic probability for treatment of alcohol induced neuro-biochemical and neuro-behavioral malicious effects have been amazingly increased. Many previous studies have reported the neuroprotective roles of crocin (major active component of saffron) in multiple neurodegenerative events and diseases in animal model. But the role of crocin neuroprotective effects against alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral sequels and also role of CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK in this manner remain unclear. Hence we hypothesized that by using crocin in alcohol dependent subject it would provide neuroprotection against alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral and probably can manage sequels of alcohol abuses. Also we hypothesized that crocin, via intonation of CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK signaling pathway, can inhibit alcohol induced neurodegeneration. In this article, we tried to discuss our hypothesis regarding the possible role of crocin, as a potent neuroprotective agent, and also role of Akt/GSK and CREB/BDNF signaling pathway in treatment of alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral through its anti-inflammatory,anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidative stress and cognitive enhancer.

Recent Advances in Studies on the Therapeutic Potential of Dietary Carotenoids in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Carotenoids, symmetrical tetraterpenes with a linear C40 hydrocarbon backbone, are natural pigment molecules produced by plants, algae, and fungi. Carotenoids have important functions in the organisms (including animals) that obtain them from food. Due to their characteristic structure, carotenoids have bioactive properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and autophagy-modulatory activities. Given the protective function of carotenoids, their levels in the human body have been significantly associated with the treatment and prevention of various diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases. In this paper, we review the latest studies on the effects of carotenoids on neurodegenerative diseases in humans. Furthermore, animal and cellular model studies on the beneficial effects of carotenoids on neurodegeneration are also reviewed. Finally, we discuss the possible mechanisms and limitations of carotenoids in the treatment and prevention of neurological diseases.

Rapid determination of crocins in saffron by near-infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometric techniques

Saffron is an expensive spice. Its primary effective constituents are crocin I and II, and the contents of these compounds directly affect the quality and commercial value of saffron. In this study, near-infrared spectroscopy was combined with chemometric techniques for the determination of crocin I and II in saffron. Partial least squares regression models were built for the quantification of crocin I and II. By comparing different spectral ranges and spectral pretreatment methods (no pretreatment, vector normalization, subtract a straight line, multiplicative scatter correction, minimum-maximum normalization, eliminate the constant offset, first derivative, and second derivative), optimum models were developed. The root mean square error of cross-validation values of the best partial least squares models for crocin I and II were 1.40 and 0.30, respectively. The coefficients of determination for crocin I and II were 93.40 and 96.30, respectively. These results show that near-infrared spectroscopy can be combined with chemometric techniques to determine the contents of crocin I and II in saffron quickly and efficiently.

Chronic treatment with carvacrol improves passive avoidance memory in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

ABSTRACT The present study investigated the effects of carvacrol on motor and memory deficits as well as hyperalgesia in the 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease. The animals were subjected to unilateral microinjection of 6-OHDA into the medial forebrain bundle and treated with carvacrol (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, ip) for six weeks after surgery. The 6-OHDA-lesioned rats showed contralateral rotations towards the lesion side, which was accompanied by learning and memory deficits in a passive avoidance test and a decrease in tail withdrawal latency in a tail flick test at the end of week 6. The results also showed that treatment with carvacrol at a dose of 25 mg/kg ameliorated memory deficits, with no effect on rotations and hyperalgesia in lesioned rats. In conclusion, carvacrol improves memory impairments in rats with Parkinson's disease; therefore, it may serve as an adjunct therapy for the alleviation of memory deficits in Parkinson's disease patients.

Crocin improves spatial learning and memory deficits in the Morris water maze via attenuating cortical oxidative damage in diabetic rats

The purpose of the current study was to examine the influence of crocin on improving spatial memory deficits and cerebral oxidative damage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Crocin was administered intraperitoneally daily at doses of 15, 30 and 60mg/kg for 6 weeks. Spatial memory performance was measured in rats by the Morris water maze paradigm. Lipid peroxidation and total thiol levels as parameters of oxidative stress were assessed in the cerebral cortex at the end of week 6. Diabetic rats showed spatial learning and memory deficits in the Morris water maze which was accompanied by increased lipid peroxidation levels in the cerebral cortex. By contrast, chronic treatment with crocin (15, 30 and 60mg/kg, ip, 6 weeks) improved cognitive performance and lowered hyperglycaemia and oxidative stress in diabetic rats. In conclusion, the results suggest that beneficial effects of crocin on streptozotocin-induced memory dysfunction may be attributed to its antidiabetic and antioxidant activity, which could find clinical use in treating cognitive dysfunction in diabetics.