A Comprehensive Review on the Techniques for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Cannabis

Seaweed-derived phenolic compounds as diverse bioactive molecules: A review on identification, application, extraction and purification strategies

Seaweed, a diverse group of marine macroalgae, has emerged as a rich source of bioactive compounds with numerous health-promoting properties. Among these, phenolic compounds have garnered significant attention for their diverse therapeutic applications. This review examines the methodologies employed in the extraction and purification of phenolic compounds from seaweed, emphasizing their importance in unlocking the full potential of these oceanic treasures. The article provides a comprehensive overview of the structural diversity and biological activities of seaweed-derived phenolics, elucidating their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. Furthermore, it explores the impact of extraction techniques, including conventional methods and modern green technologies, on the yield and quality of phenolic extracts. The purification strategies for isolating specific phenolic compounds are also discussed, shedding light on the challenges and advancements in this field. Additionally, the review highlights the potential applications of seaweed-derived phenolics in various industries, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and functional foods, underscoring the economic value of these compounds. Finally, future perspectives and research directions are proposed to encourage continued exploration of seaweed phenolics, fostering a deeper understanding of their therapeutic potential and promoting sustainable practices in the extraction and purification processes. This comprehensive review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, industry professionals, and policymakers interested in harnessing the untapped potential of phenolic compounds from seaweed for the betterment of human health and environmental sustainability.

Low UV radiation influenced DNA methylation, gene regulation, cell proliferation, viability, and biochemical differentiation in the cell suspension cultures of Cannabis indica

The effect of low artificial Ultraviolet (UV) on the DNA methylation remains controversial. This study addresses how differential photoperiods of UV radiation affect the biochemical and molecular behaviors of Cannabis indica cell suspension cultures. The cell suspensions were illuminated with the compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), emitting a combination of 10% UVB, 30% UVA, and the rest visible wavelengths for 0, 4, 8, and 16 h. The applied photoperiods influenced cell morphological characteristics. The 4 h photoperiod was the most effective treatment for improving biomass, growth index and cell viability percentage while these indices remained non-significant in the 16 h treatment. The methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MASP) assay revealed that the UV radiation was epigenetically accompanied by DNA hypermethylation. The light-treated cells significantly displayed higher relative expression of the cannabidiolic‌ acid synthase (CBDAS) and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) genes about 4-fold. The expression of the olivetolic acid cyclase (OAC) and olivetol synthase (OLS) genes exhibited an upward trend in response to the UV radiation. The light treatments also enhanced the proline content and protein concentration. The 4 h illumination was significantly capable of improving the cannabidiol (CBD) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations, in contrast with 16 h. By increasing the illumination exposure time, the activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme linearly upregulated. The highest amounts of the phenylpropanoid derivatives were observed in the cells cultured under the radiation for 4 h. Taken collective, artificial UV radiation can induce DNA methylation modifications and impact biochemical and molecular differentiation in the cell suspensions in a photoperiod-dependent manner.

Water Extracts from Industrial Hemp Waste Inhibit the Adhesion and Development of Candida Biofilm and Showed Antioxidant Activity on HT-29 Colon Cancer Cells

The evolution of regulatory perspectives regarding the health and nutritional properties of industrial hemp-based products (Cannabis sativa L.) has pushed research to focus on the development of new methods for both the extraction and formulation of the bioactive compounds present in hemp extracts. While the psychoactive and medicinal properties of hemp-derived cannabinoid extracts are well known, much less has been investigated on the functional and antimicrobial properties of hemp extracts. Within the hemp value chain, various agricultural wastes and by-products are generated. These materials can be valorised through eco-innovations, ultimately promoting sustainable economic development. In this study, we explored the use of waste from industrial light cannabis production for the extraction of bioactive compounds without the addition of chemicals. The five extracts obtained were tested for their antimicrobial activity on both planktonic and sessile cells of pathogenic strains of the Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida tropicalis species and for their antioxidant activity on HT-29 colon cancer cells under oxidative stress. Our results demonstrated that these extracts display interesting properties both as antioxidants and in hindering the development of fungal biofilm, paving the way for further investigations into the sustainable valorisation of hemp waste for different biomedical applications.

Product labeling accuracy and contamination analysis of commercially available cannabidiol product samples

Background and objective: Commercially available cannabidiol (CBD) products are increasingly being used for medicinal purposes, including for the treatment of various neurological conditions, but there are growing concerns around adherence to quality control measures that protect consumers. This study was conducted to assess the purity and label accuracy of commercially available CBD products. Methods: Commercially available CBD products were chosen from the open stream of commerce in the United States based on formulations as a tincture, gummy, vape, or topical product. Cannabinoid concentrations were analyzed to verify label accuracy including "full spectrum," "broad spectrum," and "CBD isolate" claims on the product label. Analysis for the presence of contaminants included evaluation for heavy metals, pesticides, and residual solvents. Labeled and actual total amounts of CBD and levels of impurities such as heavy metals, residual solvents, and pesticides were measured. Results: A total of 202 CBD products (100 tinctures, 48 gummies, 34 vape products, and 20 topicals) were chosen to represent a broad sample in the United States. Of the products tested (full spectrum, n = 84; broad spectrum, n = 28; CBD isolate, n = 37), 26% did not meet the definition for product type claimed on the packaging. The majority of products (74%) deviated from their label claim of CBD potency by at least 10%. Heavy metals were detected 52 times across 44 of the 202 products tested, with lead being the most prevalent heavy metal. Residual solvents were detected 446 times across 181 of 202 products, with the highest concentrations reported for hexane, m/p-xylene, methanol, and o-xylene. Of 232 pesticides tested, 26 were found 55 times across 30 products. A total of 3% of heavy metals, 1% of residual solvents, and 1% of pesticides violated >1 regulatory threshold. Discussion: This study demonstrated that the majority of commercially available CBD products tested within the current study are inaccurately labeled. Heavy metals, residual solvents, and pesticides were found in several products, some of which violated regulatory thresholds. Thus, uniform compliance with CBD quality control measures is lacking and raises consumer protection concerns. Improved regulatory oversight of this industry is recommended.

Trends and challenges of fruit by-products utilization: insights into safety, sensory, and benefits of the use for the development of innovative healthy food: a review

A significant portion of the human diet is comprised of fruits, which are consumed globally either raw or after being processed. A huge amount of waste and by-products such as skins, seeds, cores, rags, rinds, pomace, etc. are being generated in our homes and agro-processing industries every day. According to previous statistics, nearly half of the fruits are lost or discarded during the entire processing chain. The concern arises when those wastes and by-products damage the environment and simultaneously cause economic losses. There is a lot of potential in these by-products for reuse in a variety of applications, including the isolation of valuable bioactive ingredients and their application in developing healthy and functional foods. The development of novel techniques for the transformation of these materials into marketable commodities may offer a workable solution to this waste issue while also promoting sustainable economic growth from the bio-economic viewpoint. This approach can manage waste as well as add value to enterprises. The goal of this study is twofold based on this scenario. The first is to present a brief overview of the most significant bioactive substances found in those by-products. The second is to review the current status of their valorization including the trends and techniques, safety assessments, sensory attributes, and challenges. Moreover, specific attention is drawn to the future perspective, and some solutions are discussed in this report.

The Neurotherapeutic Arsenal in Cannabis sativa: Insights into Anti-Neuroinflammatory and Neuroprotective Activity and Potential Entourage Effects

Cannabis, renowned for its historical medicinal use, harbours various bioactive compounds-cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids. While major cannabinoids like delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) have received extensive scrutiny for their pharmacological properties, emerging evidence underscores the collaborative interactions among these constituents, suggesting a collective therapeutic potential. This comprehensive review explores the intricate relationships and synergies between cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids in cannabis. Cannabinoids, pivotal in cannabis's bioactivity, exhibit well-documented analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Terpenes, aromatic compounds imbuing distinct flavours, not only contribute to cannabis's sensory profile but also modulate cannabinoid effects through diverse molecular mechanisms. Flavonoids, another cannabis component, demonstrate anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, particularly relevant to neuroinflammation. The entourage hypothesis posits that combined cannabinoid, terpene, and flavonoid action yields synergistic or additive effects, surpassing individual compound efficacy. Recognizing the nuanced interactions is crucial for unravelling cannabis's complete therapeutic potential. Tailoring treatments based on the holistic composition of cannabis strains allows optimization of therapeutic outcomes while minimizing potential side effects. This review underscores the imperative to delve into the intricate roles of cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids, offering promising prospects for innovative therapeutic interventions and advocating continued research to unlock cannabis's full therapeutic potential within the realm of natural plant-based medicine.

Chemical Composition of Commercial Cannabis

Cannabis is widely used for medicinal and recreational purposes. As a result, there is increased interest in its chemical components and their physiological effects. However, current information on cannabis chemistry is often outdated or scattered across many books and journals. To address this issue, we used modern metabolomics techniques and modern bioinformatics techniques to compile a comprehensive list of >6000 chemical constituents in commercial cannabis. The metabolomics methods included a combination of high- and low-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS), gas chromatography-MS, and inductively coupled plasma-MS. The bioinformatics methods included computer-aided text mining and computational genome-scale metabolic inference. This information, along with detailed compound descriptions, physicochemical data, known physiological effects, protein targets, and referential compound spectra, has been made available through a publicly accessible database called the Cannabis Compound Database (https://cannabisdatabase.ca). Such a centralized, open-access resource should prove to be quite useful for the cannabis community.

Phytocannabinoids: Pharmacological effects, biomedical applications, and worldwide prospection

Scientific evidence exists about the association between neurological diseases (i.e., Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, depression, and memory loss) and oxidative damage. The increasing worldwide incidence of such diseases is attracting the attention of researchers to find palliative medications to reduce the symptoms and promote quality of life, in particular, in developing countries, e.g., South America and Africa. Among potential alternatives, extracts of Cannabis Sativa L. are suitable for people who have neurological disorders, spasticity, and pain, nausea, resulting from diseases such as cancer and arthritis. In this review, we discuss the latest developments in the use of Cannabis, its subtypes and constituents, extraction methods, and relevant pharmacological effects. Biomedical applications, marketed products, and prospects for the worldwide use of Cannabis Sativa L. extracts are also discussed, providing the bibliometric maps of scientific literature published in representative countries from South America (i.e., Brazil) and Africa (i.e., South Africa). A lack of evidence on the effectiveness and safety of Cannabis, besides the concerns about addiction and other adverse events, has led many countries to act with caution before changing Cannabis-related regulations. Recent findings are expected to increase the social acceptance of Cannabis, while new technologies seem to boost the global cannabis market because the benefits of (-)-trans-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) use have been proven in several studies in addition to the potential to general new employment.

The Antioxidant and Neuroprotective Potential of Leaves and Inflorescences Extracts of Selected Hemp Varieties Obtained with scCO2

Cannabis sativa, a versatile plant with numerous varieties, holds promising potential for a wide range of biological activity. As raw materials for research, we chose leaves and inflorescences of hemp varieties such as Białobrzeskie, Henola, and Tygra, which are cultivated mainly for their fibers or seeds. The choice of extraction is a key step in obtaining the selected compositions of active compounds from plant material. Bearing in mind the lipophilic nature of cannabinoids, we performed supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) extraction at 50 °C under 2000 (a) and 6000 PSI (b). The cannabinoid contents were determined with the use of the HPLC-DAD method. The antioxidant capabilities were assessed through a series of procedures, including the DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP methods. The capacity to inhibit enzymes that play a role in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and tyrosinase was also studied. The dominant cannabinoids in the extracts were cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). The highest concentration of eight cannabinoids was detected in the Tygra inflorescences extract (b). The most notable antioxidant properties were provided by the Tygra inflorescences extract (b). Nonetheless, it was the Henola inflorescences extract (b) that demonstrated the most efficient inhibition of AChE and BChE, and tyrosinase was inhibited the most significantly by the Białobrzeskie inflorescences extract (b). Multidimensional comparative analysis enrolled all assays and revealed that the Henola inflorescences extract (b) showed the most substantial neuroprotective potential.

Determining Antioxidant Activity of Cannabis Leaves Extracts from Different Varieties-Unveiling Nature's Treasure Trove

Cannabis leaves contain a diverse range of antioxidants, including cannabinoids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds, which offer significant health benefits. Utilising cannabis leaves as a source of antioxidants presents a cost-effective approach because they are typically discarded during the cultivation of cannabis plants for their seeds or fibres. Therefore, this presented study aimed to assess the antioxidant activity of the leaves of selected hemp cultivars, such as Białobrzeska, Tygra, and Henola, based on the results obtained with the 2,2'-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid, ferric reducing antioxidant power, cupric reducing antioxidant capacity, and 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assays. The cannabinoid profile was analysed for the antioxidant activity to the contents of cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), and cannabichromene (CBC), determined based on chromatographic assays. The following variables were tested: the impact of various extractants (methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol), and their mixtures (50:50, v/v, as well as extraction methods (maceration and ultra-sound-assisted extraction) significant in obtaining hemp extracts characterised by different cannabinoid profiles. The results revealed that the selection of extractant and extraction conditions significantly influenced the active compounds' extraction efficiency and antioxidant activity. Among the tested conditions, ultrasound-assisted extraction using methanol yielded the highest cannabinoid profile: CBD = 184.51 ± 5.61; CBG = 6.10 ± 0.21; Δ9-THC = 0.51 ± 0.01; and CBC = 0.71 ± 0.01 μg/g antioxidant potential in Białobrzeska leaf extracts.

Effective isolation of cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid free of psychotropic phytocannabinoids from hemp extract by fast centrifugal partition chromatography

Cannabidiol (CBD), together with its precursor cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), is the major phytocannabinoid occurring in most hemp cultivars. To ensure the safe use of these compounds, their effective isolation from hemp extract is required, with special emphasis on the elimination of ∆⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆⁹-THC) and ∆⁹-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (∆⁹-THCA-A). In this study, we demonstrate the applicability of fast centrifugal partition chromatography (FCPC) as a challenging format of counter-current preparative chromatography for the isolation of CBD and CBDA free of psychotropic compounds that may occur in Cannabis sativa L. plant extracts. Thirty-eight solvent mixtures were tested to identify a suitable two-phase system for this purpose. Based on the measured partition coefficients (K_D) and separation factors (α), the two-phase system consisting of n-heptane:ethyl acetate:ethanol:water (1.5:0.5:1.5:0.5; v:v:v:v) was selected as an optimal solvent mixture. Employing UHPLC-HRMS/MS for target analysis of collected fractions, the elution profiles of 17 most common phytocannabinoids were determined. Under experimental conditions, the purity of isolated CBD and CBDA was 98.9 and 95.1% (w/w), respectively. Neither of ∆⁹-THC nor of ∆⁹-THCA-A were present; only trace amounts of other biologically active compounds contained in hemp extract were detected by screening against in-house spectral library using UHPLC-HRMS.

Cannabis: a multifaceted plant with endless potentials

Cannabis sativa, also known as "hemp" or "weed," is a versatile plant with various uses in medicine, agriculture, food, and cosmetics. This review attempts to evaluate the available literature on the ecology, chemical composition, phytochemistry, pharmacology, traditional uses, industrial uses, and toxicology of Cannabis sativa. So far, 566 chemical compounds have been isolated from Cannabis, including 125 cannabinoids and 198 non-cannabinoids. The psychoactive and physiologically active part of the plant is a cannabinoid, mostly found in the flowers, but also present in smaller amounts in the leaves, stems, and seeds. Of all phytochemicals, terpenes form the largest composition in the plant. Pharmacological evidence reveals that the plants contain cannabinoids which exhibit potential as antioxidants, antibacterial agents, anticancer agents, and anti-inflammatory agents. Furthermore, the compounds in the plants have reported applications in the food and cosmetic industries. Significantly, Cannabis cultivation has a minimal negative impact on the environment in terms of cultivation. Most of the studies focused on the chemical make-up, phytochemistry, and pharmacological effects, but not much is known about the toxic effects. Overall, the Cannabis plant has enormous potential for biological and industrial uses, as well as traditional and other medicinal uses. However, further research is necessary to fully understand and explore the uses and beneficial properties of Cannabis sativa.

Curcumin: Overview of Extraction Methods, Health Benefits, and Encapsulation and Delivery Using Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions

Curcumin is the principal curcuminoid found in the rhizomes of turmeric. Due to its therapeutic action against cancer, depression, diabetes, some bacteria, and oxidative stress, it has been used widely in medicine since ancient times. Due to its low solubility, the human organism cannot completely absorb it. Advanced extraction technologies, followed by encapsulation in microemulsion and nanoemulsion systems, are currently being used to improve bioavailability. This review discusses the different methods available for curcumin extraction from plant material, methods for the identification of curcumin in the resulting extracts, its beneficial effects on human health, and the encapsulation techniques into small colloidal systems that have been used over the past decade to deliver this compound.

Antitumor Effects of Cannabis sativa Bioactive Compounds on Colorectal Carcinogenesis

Cannabis sativa is a multipurpose plant that has been used in medicine for centuries. Recently, considerable research has focused on the bioactive compounds of this plant, particularly cannabinoids and terpenes. Among other properties, these compounds exhibit antitumor effects in several cancer types, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Cannabinoids show positive effects in the treatment of CRC by inducing apoptosis, proliferation, metastasis, inflammation, angiogenesis, oxidative stress, and autophagy. Terpenes, such as β-caryophyllene, limonene, and myrcene, have also been reported to have potential antitumor effects on CRC through the induction of apoptosis, the inhibition of cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. In addition, synergy effects between cannabinoids and terpenes are believed to be important factors in the treatment of CRC. This review focuses on the current knowledge about the potential of cannabinoids and terpenoids from C. sativa to serve as bioactive agents for the treatment of CRC while evidencing the need for further research to fully elucidate the mechanisms of action and the safety of these compounds.

The analysis of cannabinoids in e-cigarette liquids using LC-HRAM-MS and LC-UV

The use of cannabidiol or CBD products has skyrocketed in the last five years due to the alleged therapeutic benefits, a low potential for abuse and lack of the typical psychoactive effects associated with the use of cannabis products containing high levels of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC). In Belgium, CBD-containing e-liquids with a total THC content lower than 0.2% (w/w) are currently legal. In order to verify the compliance of the different CBD-containing e-cigarette liquids that are available to the Belgian population, a method was developed for screening of 17 cannabinoids and to quantify the major cannabinoids such as CBD, CBDA, ∆9-THC and ∆9-THCA. The latter was fully validated using the 'total error' approach, applying accuracy profiles and conforming to ISO17025. None of the analysed samples exceeded the legal limit for the total amount of ∆9-THC present. However, of the 20 CBD-liquids investigated in this study, only 30% of the samples contained an amount of CBD that was within 10% deviation of the label claim. Moreover, the CBD e-liquids labelled "full/broad spectrum" consisted of several minor alkaloids in comparison to the "classic" CBD e-liquids where the acidic forms of the cannabinoids were not present. Currently, no legislation is available for the regulation of CBD e-liquids, however these results indicate that quality controls are pertinent especially concerning the discrepancy in CBD label accuracy.

Cannabis Extraction Technologies: Impact of Research and Value Addition in Latin America

The Cannabis genus of plants has been widely used in different cultures for various purposes. It is separated into three main species: sativa, indica, and ruderalis. In ancient practices, the plant was used as a multipurpose crop and valued for its fiber, food, and medicinal uses. Since methodologies for the extraction, processing, and identification of components have become available, medical, and food applications have been increasing, allowing potential development in the pharmaceutical and healthy functional food industries. Although the growing legalization and adoption of cannabis for the treatment of diseases are key factors pushing the growth of its market, the biggest challenge is to obtain higher-quality products in a time- and cost-effective fashion, making the process of extraction and separation an essential step. Latin American countries exhibit great knowledge of extraction technologies; nevertheless, it is still necessary to verify whether production costs are economically profitable. In addition, there has been an increase in commercial cannabis products that may or may not be allowed, with or without quality fact sheets, which can pose health risks. Hence, legalization is mandatory and urgent for the rest of Latin American countries. In this article, the phytochemical compounds (cannabinoids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds), the current status of legalization, extraction techniques, and research advances in cannabis in Latin America are reviewed.

Extraction techniques for bioactive compounds of cannabis

Historically, cannabis has always constituted a component of the civilized world; archaeological discoveries indicate that it is one of the oldest crops, while, up until the 19th century, cannabis fibers were extensively used in a variety of applications, and its seeds comprised a part of human and livestock nutrition. Additional evidence supports its exploitation for medicinal purposes in the ancient world. The cultivation of cannabis gradually declined as hemp fibers gave way to synthetic fibers, while the intoxicating ability of THC eventually overshadowed the extensive potential of cannabis. Nevertheless, the proven value of certain non-intoxicating cannabinoids, such as CBD and CBN, has recently given rise to an entire market which promotes cannabis-based products. An increase in the research for recovery and exploitation of beneficial cannabinoids has also been observed, with more than 10 000 peer-reviewed research articles published annually. In the present review, a brief overview of the history of cannabis is given. A look into the classification approaches of cannabis plants/species as well as the associated nomenclature is provided, followed by a description of their chemical characteristics and their medically valuable components. The application areas could not be absent from the present review. Still, the main focus of the review is the discussion of work conducted in the field of extraction of valuable bioactive compounds from cannabis. We conclude with a summary of the current status and outlook on the topics that future research should address.

Investigation of the Material Basis of Xiexin Tang to Alleviate Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Based on Spectrum-Effect Analysis by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS

Xiexin Tang (XXT) is a classic prescription for treating diabetes in clinical practices for thousands of years in China, which has been also proved by a large number of modern pharmacological studies. However, due to its complex composition, the bioactive ingredients of XXT is still unclear. In present researches, spectrum-effect relationship analysis is widely used to explore the material basis of traditional medical herbs, so this method was adopted in this study. Firstly, the extract of XXT was separated and enriched into 5 fractions by macroporous adsorption resin. Then, UPLC-Q-TOF/MS method was used for qualitative identification of components in each eluting part, and efficacy of each fraction was assessed by the T2DM rat model. Based on grey relational analysis and pearson bivariate correlation analysis, it was found that the components such as berberine, gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, acteoside, berberastine and 1-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose might be the main effective basis of XXT to improve T2DM.

Standard operating procedures for the comprehensive and reliable analysis of cannabis terpenes

Terpenes are the primary determinants of cannabis flower aroma, and ongoing research tests their potential for impacting the overall experience. Frustratingly, despite the importance of terpenes in cannabis physiology and commercial uses, literature reports vary widely regarding the major constituents of volatile blends and the concentrations of individual terpenes. In this article, we provide detailed descriptions of complementary approaches that will allow researchers to determine the identity and quantity of cannabis terpenes unequivocally and reliably. These standard operating procedures will guide decisions about which method to employ to address specific analytical goals. We are including two application examples to illustrate the utility of different approaches for tackling the analysis of terpenes in cannabis flower samples.

Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology

Limited studies have explored different extraction techniques that improve cannabis extraction with scale-up potential. Ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction were evaluated to maximize the yield and concentration of cannabinoids and terpenes. A central composite rotatable design was used to optimize independent factors (sample-to-solvent ratio, extraction time, extraction temperature, and duty cycle). The optimal conditions for ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extraction were the sample-to-solvent ratios of 1:15 and 1:14.4, respectively, for 30 min at 60 °C. Ultrasound-assisted extraction yielded 14.4% and 14.2% more oil and terpenes, respectively, compared with microwave-assisted extracts. Ultrasound-assisted extraction increased cannabinoid concentration from 13.2−39.2%. Considering reference ground samples, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid increased from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter−1) to 28.5 and 20 with extraction efficiencies of 159.2% and 111.4% for ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction, respectively. Principal component analyses indicate that the first two principal components accounted for 96.6% of the total variance (PC1 = 93.2% and PC2 = 3.4%) for ultrasound-assisted extraction and 92.4% of the total variance (PC1 = 85.4% and PC2 = 7%) for microwave-assisted extraction. Sample-to-solvent ratios significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the secondary metabolite profiles and yields for ultrasound-assisted extracts, but not microwave-assisted extracts.

Cold Ethanol Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology: Optimization and Comparative Study

Efficient cannabis biomass extraction can increase yield while reducing costs and minimizing waste. Cold ethanol extraction was evaluated to maximize yield and concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes at different temperatures. Central composite rotatable design was used to optimize two independent factors: sample-to-solvent ratio (1:2.9 to 1:17.1) and extraction time (5.7 min-34.1 min). With response surface methodology, predicted optimal conditions at different extraction temperatures were a cannabis-to-ethanol ratio of 1:15 and a 10 min extraction time. With these conditions, yields (g 100 g dry matter^-1) were 18.2, 19.7, and 18.5 for -20 °C, -40 °C and room temperature, respectively. Compared to the reference ground sample, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid changed from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter^-1) to 15, 17.5, and 18.3 with an extraction efficiency of 83.6%, 97.7%, 102.1% for -20 °C, -40 °C, and room temperature, respectively. Terpene content decreased by 54.1% and 32.2% for extraction at -20 °C and room temperature, respectively, compared to extraction at -40 °C. Principal component analysis showed that principal component 1 and principal component 2 account for 88% and 7.31% of total variance, respectively, although no significant differences in cold ethanol extraction at different temperatures were observed.

Development and Validation of the LC-MS/MS Method for Determination of 130 Natural and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Cannabis Oil

Dietary supplements are widely available products used by millions of people around the world. Unfortunately, the procedure of adding pharmaceutical and psychoactive substances has recently been observed, in order to increase the effectiveness of supplements in the form of hemp oils. For this reason, it is extremely important to develop analytical methods for the detection of substances prohibited in dietary supplements and food products. In the present study, using the LC-MS/MS technique, an innovative method for the detection and quantification of 117 synthetic cannabinoids and 13 natural cannabinoids in dietary supplements and food products in the form of oils during one 13-min chromatographic run was developed. Each method was fully validated by characterization of the following parameters: The limit of detection was set to 0.1 ng/mL (100 µg/g, 0.01%). The limit of quantification ranged from 0.05 ng/mL to 50 ng/mL. The criteria assumed for systematic error caused by methodological bias (±20%) resulting from the recovery of analytes after the extraction process, as well as the coefficient of variation (CV) (≤20%), were met for all 130 tested compounds. The positive results of the validation confirmed that the developed methods met the requirements related to the adequacy of their application in a given scope. Additionally, methods developed using the LC-MS/MS technique were verified via proficiency tests. The developed analytical procedure was successfully used in the analysis of hemp oils and capsules containing them in the studied dietary supplements.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Cannabinoids from Cannabis Sativa for Medicinal Purpose

Over the past 20 years, the interest in Cannabis oily extracts for medicinal use compounded in pharmacy has consistently grown, along with the need to have preparations of adequate quality. Hot maceration (M) is the most frequently used method to compound oily solutions. In this work, we systematically studied the possibility of using an ultrasonic homogenizer and a sonotrode (US) as an alternative extraction method. Oily solutions were prepared using two available varieties of Cannabis for medicinal use, called FM2 and Bedrocan. All preparations resulted with an equivalent content in CBD and THC, with the advantage of a faster process using US. In particular, 10 min sonication at the amplitude optimized for the sonotrode used (2 or 7 mm) provides not statistically different total Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (M-FM2: 0.26 ± 0.02 % w/w; US-FM2: 0.19 ± 0.004 % w/w; M-Bedrocan: 1.83 ± 0.17 % w/w; US-Bedrocan: 1.98 ± 0.01 % w/w) and total cannabidiol (M-FM2: 0.59 ± 0.04 % w/w; US-FM2: 0.58 ± 0.01 % w/w) amounts extracted in refined olive oil. It can therefore be confirmed that sonotrode is an efficient and fast extraction technique and its use is without negative consequence on the solvent properties. Despite DSC evidencing that both maceration and sonication modify the T_onset and enthalpy of the event at about -10 °C, the qualitative characteristics of the oil remained constant for the two treatments and similar to the starting material.

Extraction, Characterization, and Chitosan Microencapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Cannabis sativa L., Cannabis indica L., and Mitragyna speiosa K

The objective of the research was to investigate the bioactive compounds of herbal plant leaves by microencapsulation technique for future application as a feed additive. In this experiment, three herbal plant leaves, namely Cannabis sativa L., Cannabis indica L., and Mitragyna speiosa K., were comparatively investigated using different methods to extract their bioactive compounds. Two methods were used to extract the bioactive compounds: microwave extraction (water-heating transferred) and maceration extraction (methanol extracted). The results obtained using microwave extraction revealed that the total polyphenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant capacity were significantly higher and stronger, respectively, than those produced by the maceration extraction method (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the spray-drying technique was employed to enhance the extracted compounds by encapsulation with chitosan through ionic gelation properties. The physical characteristics of chitosan-encapsulated substrates were examined under a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and were as microparticle size (1.45 to 11.0 µm). The encapsulation efficiency of the bioactive compounds was found to be 99.7, 82.3, and 54.6% for microencapsulated M. speiosa, C. indica, and C. sativa, respectively. Therefore, microwave treatment prior to chitosan encapsulation of leaf extracts resulted in increased recovery of bioactive compound encroachment.

Terpenes and Cannabinoids in Supercritical CO2 Extracts of Industrial Hemp Inflorescences: Optimization of Extraction, Antiradical and Antibacterial Activity

Natural products are increasingly in demand in dermatology and cosmetology. In the present study, highly valuable supercritical CO₂ (sCO₂) extracts rich in bioactive compounds with antiradical and antibacterial activity were obtained from the inflorescences of industrial hemp. Volatile compounds were analyzed by gas chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while cannabinoids were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD). Extraction yields varied from 0.75 to 8.83%, depending on the pressure and temperature applied. The extract obtained at 320 bar and 40 °C with the highest content (305.8 µg mg^-1) of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) showed the best antiradical properties. All tested extract concentrations from 10.42 µg mL^-1 to 66.03 µg mL^-1 possessed inhibitory activities against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, and S. aureus. The sCO₂ extract with the highest content of cannabidiol (CBD) and rich in α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, and limonene was the most effective. The optimal conditions for sCO₂ extraction of cannabinoids and volatile terpenes from industrial hemp were determined. The temperature of 60 °C proved to be optimal for all responses studied, while the pressure showed a different effect depending on the compounds targeted. A low pressure of 131.2 bar was optimal for the extraction of monoterpenes, while extracts rich in sesquiterpenes were obtained at 319.7 bar. A high pressure of 284.78 bar was optimal for the extraction of CBD.

Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products: A Systemic Review

The traditional Cannabis plant as a medicinal crop has been explored for many thousands of years. The Cannabis industry is rapidly growing; therefore, optimising drying methods and producing high-quality medical products have been a hot topic in recent years. We systemically analysed the current literature and drew a critical summary of the drying methods implemented thus far to preserve the quality of bioactive compounds from medicinal Cannabis. Different drying techniques have been one of the focal points during the post-harvesting operations, as drying preserves these Cannabis products with increased shelf life. We followed or even highlighted the most popular methods used. Drying methods have advanced from traditional hot air and oven drying methods to microwave-assisted hot air drying or freeze-drying. In this review, traditional and modern drying technologies are reviewed. Each technology will have different pros and cons of its own. Moreover, this review outlines the quality of the Cannabis plant component harvested plays a major role in drying efficiency and preserving the chemical constituents. The emergence of medical Cannabis, and cannabinoid research requires optimal post-harvesting processes for different Cannabis strains. We proposed the most suitable method for drying medicinal Cannabis to produce consistent, reliable and potent medicinal Cannabis. In addition, drying temperature, rate of drying, mode and storage conditions after drying influenced the Cannabis component retention and quality.

Preliminary Research Concerning the Enrichment of Industrial Hemp Extract Residues via Solid State Fermentation with Pleurotus ostreatus

The main objective of this study concerns the bioconversion of industrial hemp extract residues (IHER) by applying a solid-state fermentation (SSF) bioprocess as a means to upgrade their nutritional composition, targeting their utilization as a proteinaceous animal feed. For this purpose, IHER underwent an SSF procedure initiated by P. ostreatus, and the results indicated that crude proteins were increased by 53.05%. Additionally, a similar pattern was observed concerning cellulose content, which was found to be increased by 5.25%, while lignin concentration exceeded a 2-fold increment. Furthermore, IHER afforded an increased β-glucan content of approximately 32.51%. These results revealed the significant potential of IHER as a supplement in animal diets after nutritional enhancement via SSF. This study contributes to the concept of the circular economy, thus promoting the reuse of agro-industrial wastes such as IHER in order to produce high-added-value products such as proteinaceous animal feed.

α-Glucosidase inhibitory activity of cannabidiol, tetrahydrocannabinol and standardized cannabinoid extracts from Cannabis sativa

Two major cannabinoids of cannabis, namely cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) have been reportedly used as alternative medicine for diabetes treatment in both pre-clinical and clinical research. However, their mechanisms of action still remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of THC, CBD and the standardized cannabinoid extracts. Based on in silico studies, THC generated hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals interactions, while CBD exhibited only Van der Waals interactions with functional residues of target α-glucosidase protein, with good binding energies of −7.5 and −6.9 kcal/mol, respectively. In addition, both of them showed excellent pharmacokinetic profiles with minor toxicity in terms of tumorigenic and reproductive effects. In addition, the enzyme based in vitro assay on α-glucosidase revealed that THC and CBD exhibited good inhibitory activity, with the IC₅₀ values of 3.0 ± 0.37 and 5.5 ± 0.28 μg/ml, respectively. These were better than the standard drug, acarbose (IC₅₀ of 488.6 ± 10.23 μg/ml). Furthermore, two standardized cannabinoid extracts, SCE-I (C. sativa leaf extract) and SCE-II (C. sativa inflorescence extract) exhibited stronger inhibitory activity than THC and CBD, with the IC₅₀ values of 1.2 ± 0.62 and 0.16 ± 0.01 μg/ml, respectively. The present study provides the first evidence that the standardized cannabinoid extracts containing THC and CBD have greater potential than CBD and THC in application as an α-glucosidase inhibitor.

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In silico study illustrated the inhibitory action of THC and CBD on α-glucosidase.

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THC and CBD exhibited good pharmacokinetic profiles with low toxicity.

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In vitro study confirmed the inhibitory effect of THC and CBD against α-glucosidase.

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Standardized cannabinoid extracts showed higher inhibitory effect than THC and CBD.