Virological Sampling of Inaccessible Wildlife with Drones

Strategies for managing marine disease

The incidence of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) has increased in wildlife populations in recent years and is expected to continue to increase with global environmental change. Marine diseases are relatively understudied compared with terrestrial diseases but warrant parallel attention as they can disrupt ecosystems, cause economic loss, and threaten human livelihoods. Although there are many existing tools to combat the direct and indirect consequences of EIDs, these management strategies are often insufficient or ineffective in marine habitats compared with their terrestrial counterparts, often due to fundamental differences between marine and terrestrial systems. Here, we first illustrate how the marine environment and marine organism life histories present challenges and opportunities for wildlife disease management. We then assess the application of common disease management strategies to marine versus terrestrial systems to identify those that may be most effective for marine disease outbreak prevention, response, and recovery. Finally, we recommend multiple actions that will enable more successful management of marine wildlife disease emergencies in the future. These include prioritizing marine disease research and understanding its links to climate change, improving marine ecosystem health, forming better monitoring and response networks, developing marine veterinary medicine programs, and enacting policy that addresses marine and other wildlife diseases. Overall, we encourage a more proactive rather than reactive approach to marine wildlife disease management and emphasize that multidisciplinary collaborations are crucial to managing marine wildlife health.

UAV remote sensing applications in marine monitoring: Knowledge visualization and review

With the booming development of information technology and the growing demand for remote sensing data, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing technology has emerged. In recent years, UAV remote sensing technology has developed rapidly and has been widely used in the fields of military defense, agricultural monitoring, surveying and mapping management, and disaster and emergency response and management. Currently, increasingly serious marine biological and environmental problems are raising the need for effective and timely monitoring. Compared with traditional marine monitoring technologies, UAV remote sensing is becoming an important means for marine monitoring thanks to its flexibility, efficiency and low cost, while still producing systematic data with high spatial and temporal resolutions. This study visualizes the knowledge domain of the application and research advances of UAV remote sensing in marine monitoring by analyzing 1130 articles (from 1993 to early 2022) using a bibliometric approach and provides a review of the application of UAVs in marine management mapping, marine disaster and environmental monitoring, and marine wildlife monitoring. It aims to promote the extensive application of UAV remote sensing in the field of marine research.

Evaluating beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) blow samples as a potential diagnostic for immune function gene expression within the respiratory system

Evaluating respiratory health is important in the management of cetaceans, which are vulnerable to respiratory diseases. Quantifying the expression of genes related to immune function within the respiratory tract could be a valuable tool for directly assessing respiratory health. Blow (exhale) samples allow DNA analysis, and we hypothesized that RNA could also be isolated from blow samples for gene expression studies of immune function. We evaluated the potential to extract RNA from beluga blow samples and tested whether transcripts associated with immune function could be detected with endpoint polymerase chain reaction. A total of 54 blow samples were collected from clinically healthy aquarium belugas (n = 3), and 15 were collected from wild belugas temporarily restrained for health assessment in Bristol Bay, Alaska (n = 9). Although RNA yield varied widely (range, 0-265.2 ng; mean = 85.8; SD = 71.3), measurable RNA was extracted from 97% of the samples. Extracted RNA was assessed in 1-6 PCR reactions targeting housekeeping genes (Rpl8, Gapdh or ActB) or genes associated with immune function (TNFα, IL-12p40 or Cox-2). Fifty of the aquarium samples (93%) amplified at least one transcript; overall PCR success for housekeeping genes (96/110, 87%) and genes associated with immune function (90/104, 87%) were similarly high. Both RNA yield and overall PCR success (27%) were lower for wild beluga samples, which is most likely due to the reduced forcefulness of the exhale when compared with trained or free-swimming belugas. Overall, the high detection rate with PCR suggests measuring gene expression in blow samples could provide diagnostic information about immune responses within the respiratory tract. While further study is required to determine if quantitative gene expression data from blow samples is associated with disease states, the non-invasive nature of this approach may prove valuable for belugas, which face increasing anthropogenic disturbances.

Drones can reliably, accurately and with high levels of precision, collect large volume water samples and physio-chemical data from lakes

The rapid development and application of drone technology has included water sampling and collection of physiochemical data from lakes. Previous research has demonstrated the significant potential of drones to play a future pivotal role in the collection of such data from lakes that fulfil requirements of large-scale monitoring programmes. However, currently the utilisation of drone technology for water quality monitoring is hindered by a number of important limitations: i) the low rate of successful sample captured; ii) the relatively low volume of water sample retrieved for analyses of multiple water chemistry parameters; and critically iii) differences between water chemistry parameters when using a drone versus samples collected by boat. Here we present results comparing the water chemistry results of a large number of parameters (pH, dissolved oxygen concentration, temperature, conductivity, alkalinity, hardness, true colour, chloride, silica, ammonia, total oxidised nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate, ortho-phosphate, total phosphorous and chlorophyll) sampled via drone with samples collected by boat in a number of lakes. The drone water sampling method used here is the first to collect a sufficiently large volume of water to meet the monitoring requirements of large scale water monitoring programmes, 2 L, at a 100% success rate and most crucially, with water chemistry variables that are not significantly different to those taken using traditional boat water sampling. This study therefore shows that drone technology can be utilised to collect water chemistry data and samples from lakes in a reliable, more rapid and cost effective manner than traditional sampling using boats, that is safer for personnel and poses less of a biosecurity risk.

Drone Observations of Marine Life and Human–Wildlife Interactions off Sydney, Australia

Drones have become popular with the general public for viewing and filming marine life. One amateur enthusiast platform, DroneSharkApp, films marine life in the waters off Sydney, Australia year-round and posts their observations on social media. The drone observations include the behaviours of a variety of coastal marine wildlife species, including sharks, rays, fur seals, dolphins and fish, as well as migratory species such as migrating humpback whales. Given the extensive effort and multiple recordings of the presence, behaviour and interactions of various species with humans provided by DroneSharkApp, we explored its utility for providing biologically meaningful observations of marine wildlife. Using social media posts from the DroneSharkApp Instagram page, a total of 678 wildlife videos were assessed from 432 days of observation collected by a single observer. This included 94 feeding behaviours or events for fur seals (n = 58) and dolphins (n = 33), two feeding events for white sharks and one feeding event for a humpback whale. DroneSharkApp documented 101 interactions with sharks and humans (swimmers and surfers), demonstrating the frequent, mainly innocuous human–shark overlap off some of Australia’s busiest beaches. Finally, DroneSharkApp provided multiple observations of humpback and dwarf minke whales with calves travelling north, indicating calving occurring well south of traditional northern Queensland breeding waters. Collaboration between scientists and citizen scientists such as those involved with DroneSharkApp can greatly and quantitatively increase the biological understanding of marine wildlife data.

Applications of Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles (UAV) Technology to Support Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the UN Sustainable Development Goals at the Coast

Data and information obtained from low-cost uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly referred to as 'drones', can be used to support integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) and sustainable development at the coast. Several recent studies in various disciplines, including ecology, engineering, and several branches of physical and human geography, describe the applications of UAV technology with practical coastal management potential, yet the extent to which such data can contribute to these activities remains underexplored. The main objective of this paper is to collate this knowledge to highlight the areas in which UAV technology can contribute to ICZM and can influence the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the coast. We focus on applications with practical potential for coastal management activities and assess their accessibility in terms of cost, ease of use, and maturity. We identified ten (out of the 17) SDGs to which UAVs can contribute data and information. Examples of applications include surveillance of illegal fishing and aquaculture activities, seaweed resource assessments, cost-estimation of post-storm damages, and documentation of natural and cultural heritage sites under threat from, for example, erosion and sea-level rise. An awareness of how UAVs can contribute to ICZM, as well as the limitations of the technology, can help coastal practitioners to evaluate their options for future management activities.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12237-021-01001-5.

Marine mammal conservation: over the horizon

Marine mammals can play important ecological roles in aquatic ecosystems, and their presence can be key to community structure and function. Consequently, marine mammals are often considered indicators of ecosystem health and flagship species. Yet, historical population declines caused by exploitation, and additional current threats, such as climate change, fisheries bycatch, pollution and maritime development, continue to impact many marine mammal species, and at least 25% are classified as threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) on the IUCN Red List. Conversely, some species have experienced population increases/recoveries in recent decades, reflecting management interventions, and are heralded as conservation successes. To continue these successes and reverse the downward trajectories of at-risk species, it is necessary to evaluate the threats faced by marine mammals and the conservation mechanisms available to address them. Additionally, there is a need to identify evidence-based priorities of both research and conservation needs across a range of settings and taxa. To that effect we: (1) outline the key threats to marine mammals and their impacts, identify the associated knowledge gaps and recommend actions needed; (2) discuss the merits and downfalls of established and emerging conservation mechanisms; (3) outline the application of research and monitoring techniques; and (4) highlight particular taxa/populations that are in urgent need of focus.

Is Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) Exhaled Breath Sampling Suitable for Hormonal Assessments?

Simple Summary

The progress of animal welfare in wildlife conservation and research calls for more non-invasive sampling techniques. In cetaceans, exhaled breath condensate (blow)—a mixture of cells, mucus and fluids expelled through the force of a whale’s exhale—is a unique sampling matrix for hormones, bacteria and genetic material, among others. Especially the detection of steroid hormones, such as cortisol, is being investigated as stress indicators in several species. As the only native cetacean in Germany, harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) are of special conservation concern and research interest. So far, strandings and live captures have been the only method to obtain samples from free-ranging individuals, and novel, non-invasive monitoring methods are desirable for this small cetacean species. Hence, three different blow collection devices were tested on harbor porpoises. All samples were analyzed for cortisol using a commercially available immunosorbent assay. The most suitable protocol for sampling, storage and processing is using a sterile 50 mL centrifuge tube. This pilot study shows that cortisol can be detected in the exhale of harbor porpoises, thus paving the way for future studies and most likely successful non-invasive small cetacean health monitoring through blow.

Abstract

Over the last decades, exhaled breath sampling has been established for laboratory analysis in various cetacean species. Due to their small size, the usability of respiratory vapor for hormone assessments was questionable in harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). This pilot study compared three different blow collection devices for their suitability in the field and during laboratory processing: a sterile petri dish covered by a Nitex membrane, as well as sterile 50 mL centrifuge tubes with or without manganese(II) chloride as a stabilizer. Collected exhales varied between three, five or ten, depending on feasibility. Hormones were extracted through an ether mix, followed by centrifugal evaporation and cortisol analysis using an immunoassay. Although close to the lower end of the assay’s dynamic range, the ELISA produced results (n = 110, 0.102–0.937 ng/mL). Hence, a simple 50 mL centrifuge tube was determined as the best suited blow collection device, while three consecutive exhales proved sufficient to yield results. These findings are promising regarding the suitability of exhaled breath as a matrix for future endocrine and immune system-related studies in harbor porpoises. If further advanced, blow sampling can become an important, non-invasive tool for studying and monitoring health, stress levels and diseases in harbor porpoises.

Virome composition in marine fish revealed by meta-transcriptomics

Revealing the determinants of virome composition is central to placing disease emergence in a broader evolutionary context. Fish are the most species-rich group of vertebrates and so provide an ideal model system to study the factors that shape virome compositions and their evolution. We characterized the viromes of nineteen wild-caught species of marine fish using total RNA sequencing (meta-transcriptomics) combined with analyses of sequence and protein structural homology to identify divergent viruses that often evade characterization. From this, we identified twenty-five new vertebrate-associated viruses and a further twenty-two viruses likely associated with fish diet or their microbiomes. The vertebrate-associated viruses identified here included the first fish virus in the Matonaviridae (single-strand, negative-sense RNA virus). Other viruses fell within the Astroviridae, Picornaviridae, Arenaviridae, Reoviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Hantaviridae, Filoviridae, and Flaviviridae, and were sometimes phylogenetically distinct from known fish viruses. We also show how key metrics of virome composition-viral richness, abundance, and diversity-can be analysed along with host ecological and biological factors as a means to understand virus ecology. Accordingly, these data suggest that that the vertebrate-associated viromes of the fish sampled here are predominantly shaped by the phylogenetic history (i.e. taxonomic order) of their hosts, along with several biological factors including water temperature, habitat depth, community diversity and swimming behaviour. No such correlations were found for viruses associated with porifera, molluscs, arthropods, fungi, and algae, that are unlikely to replicate in fish hosts. Overall, these data indicate that fish harbour particularly large and complex viromes and the vast majority of fish viromes are undescribed.

Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS)-Based Wildlife Detection: A Review and Case Studies in Maritime Antarctica

Simple Summary

Remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) have been successfully applied in wildlife monitoring with imaging sensors to improve or to supplement conventional field observations. To effectively utilize this technique, we reviewed previous studies related to wildlife detection with RPAS. First, this study provides an overview of the applications of RPAS for wild animal studies from the perspective of individual detection and population surveys as well as behavioral studies. In terms of the RPAS payload, applying thermal-imaging sensors was determined to be advantageous in detecting homeothermic animals due to the thermal contrast with background habitat using case studies detecting southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) using RGB and thermal imaging sensors in King George Island, maritime Antarctica.

Abstract

In wildlife biology, it is important to conduct efficient observations and quantitative monitoring of wild animals. Conventional wildlife monitoring mainly relies on direct field observations by the naked eyes or through binoculars, on-site image acquisition at fixed spots, and sampling or capturing under severe areal constraints. Recently, remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS), also called drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), were successfully applied to detect wildlife with imaging sensors, such as RGB and thermal-imaging sensors, with superior detection capabilities to those of human observation. Here, we review studies with RPAS which has been increasingly used in wildlife detection and explain how an RPAS-based high-resolution RGB image can be applied to wild animal studies from the perspective of individual detection and population surveys as well as behavioral studies. The applicability of thermal-imaging sensors was also assessed with further information extractable from image analyses. In addition, RPAS-based case studies of acquisition of high-resolution RGB images for the purpose of detecting southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) and shape property extraction using thermal-imaging sensor in King George Island, maritime Antarctica is presented as applications in an extreme environment. The case studies suggest that currently available cost-effective small-sized RPAS, which are capable of flexible operation and mounting miniaturized imaging sensors, and are easily maneuverable even from an inflatable boat, can be an effective and supportive technique for both the visual interpretation and quantitative analysis of wild animals in low-accessible extreme or maritime environments.

The Unexplored Virome of Two Atlantic Coast Fish: Contribution of Next-Generation Sequencing to Fish Virology

Much of the knowledge on viruses is focused on those that can be propagated using cell-cultures or that can cause disease in humans or in economically important animals and plants. However, this only reflects a small portion of the virosphere. Therefore, in this study, we explore by targeted next-generation sequencing, how the virome varies between Atlantic horse mackerels and gilthead seabreams from fisheries and aquaculture from the center and south regions of Portugal. Viral genomes potentially pathogenic to fish and crustaceans, as well as to humans, were identified namelyese included Astroviridae, Nodaviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Birnaviridae, Caliciviridae, and Picornaviridae families. Also bacteriophages sequences were identified corresponding to the majority of sequencese detected, with Myoviridae, Podoviridae, and Siphoviridae, the most widespread families in both fish species. However, these findings can also be due to the presence of bacteria in fish tissues, or even to contamination. Overall, seabreams harbored viruses from a smaller number of families in comparison with mackerels. Therefore, the obtained data show that fish sold for consumption can harbor a high diversity of viruses, many of which are unknown, reflecting the overall uncharacterized virome of fish. While cross-species transmission of bonafide fish viruses to humans is unlikely, the finding of human pathogenic viruses in fish suggest that fish virome can be a potential threat regarding food safety.

Cetacean morbillivirus in Humpback whales' exhaled breath

The humpback whale (HW; Megaptera novaeangliae) population that seasonally resides along the Brazilian coast concentrates in the Abrolhos Bank (Bahia and Espírito Santo states) for breeding during austral winter and spring. Cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV, Paramyxoviridae family) is currently one of the most significant biological threats to cetaceans worldwide with high infection and mortality rates. CeMV is pleiotropic yet it has special tropism for the respiratory, lymphoid and nervous system and is primarily transmitted by the aerogenous route. A new lineage of CeMV, the Guiana dolphin morbillivirus (GDMV), is known to affect cetaceans off Brazil. GDMV was first detected in a Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) stranded in the Abrolhos Bank region, in 2010. In addition to pathologic examinations on stranded HW, pathogen survey of free-ranging HW may provide valuable insight into the epidemiology of diseases. We hypothesized that HW in the Brazilian breeding ground could be exposed to CeMV. Thus, in the present study, we investigated the presence of CeMV in exhaled breath condensates (EBC) of HW in the Abrolhos Bank. Overall, 73 samples of EBC from 48 groups of HW were collected during the breeding seasons of 2011 (n = 16) and 2012 (n = 57). One sample failed to have the reference gene amplified and was excluded from the study. CeMV was detected by a RT-qPCR method in 2 EBC samples, representing 2 whale groups. Phylogenetic analysis of partial morbillivirus phosphoprotein gene showed 100% homology to GDMV. Our results show that HW in Brazil are infected by CeMV with a relative prevalence of 4.3% (2/47) and demonstrate the suitability of using EBC and RT-qPCR as a non-invasive tool for CeMV survey in free-ranging whales. This pioneer study provides scientific basis for non-invasive CeMV monitoring of HW, suggests HW may play a role in the dynamics of CeMV and raises concern for potential conservation implications for this species.

Operational Protocols for the Use of Drones in Marine Animal Research

The use of drones to study marine animals shows promise for the examination of numerous aspects of their ecology, behaviour, health and movement patterns. However, the responses of some marine phyla to the presence of drones varies broadly, as do the general operational protocols used to study them. Inconsistent methodological approaches could lead to difficulties comparing studies and can call into question the repeatability of research. This review draws on current literature and researchers with a wealth of practical experience to outline the idiosyncrasies of studying various marine taxa with drones. We also outline current best practice for drone operation in marine environments based on the literature and our practical experience in the field. The protocols outlined herein will be of use to researchers interested in incorporating drones as a tool into their research on marine animals and will help form consistent approaches for drone-based studies in the future.

Identification and Distribution of Novel Cressdnaviruses and Circular molecules in Four Penguin Species in South Georgia and the Antarctic Peninsula

There is growing interest in uncovering the viral diversity present in wild animal species. The remote Antarctic region is home to a wealth of uncovered microbial diversity, some of which is associated with its megafauna, including penguin species, the dominant avian biota. Penguins interface with a number of other biota in their roles as marine mesopredators and several species overlap in their ranges and habitats. To characterize the circular single-stranded viruses related to those in the phylum Cressdnaviricota from these environmental sentinel species, cloacal swabs (n = 95) were obtained from King Penguins in South Georgia, and congeneric Adélie Penguins, Chinstrap Penguins, and Gentoo Penguins across the South Shetland Islands and Antarctic Peninsula. Using a combination of high-throughput sequencing, abutting primers-based PCR recovery of circular genomic elements, cloning, and Sanger sequencing, we detected 97 novel sequences comprising 40 ssDNA viral genomes and 57 viral-like circular molecules from 45 individual penguins. We present their detection patterns, with Chinstrap Penguins harboring the highest number of new sequences. The novel Antarctic viruses identified appear to be host-specific, while one circular molecule was shared between sympatric Chinstrap and Gentoo Penguins. We also report viral genotype sharing between three adult-chick pairs, one in each Pygoscelid species. Sequence similarity network approaches coupled with Maximum likelihood phylogenies of the clusters indicate the 40 novel viral genomes do not fall within any known viral families and likely fall within the recently established phylum Cressdnaviricota based on their replication-associated protein sequences. Similarly, 83 capsid protein sequences encoded by the viruses or viral-like circular molecules identified in this study do not cluster with any of those encoded by classified viral groups. Further research is warranted to expand knowledge of the Antarctic virome and would help elucidate the importance of viral-like molecules in vertebrate host evolution.

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to sample the blow microbiome of small cetaceans

Recent studies describe the use of UAVs in collecting blow samples from large whales to analyze the microbial and viral community in exhaled air. Unfortunately, attempts to collect blow from small cetaceans have not been successful due to their swimming and diving behavior. In order to overcome these limitations, in this study we investigated the application of a specific sampling tool attached to a UAV to analyze the blow from small cetaceans and their respiratory microbiome. Preliminary trials to set up the sampling tool were conducted on a group of 6 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) under human care, housed at Acquario di Genova, with approximately 1 meter distance between the blowing animal and the tool to obtain suitable samples. The same sampling kit, suspended via a 2 meter rope assembled on a waterproof UAV, flying 3 meters above the animals, was used to sample the blows of 5 wild bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Ambracia (Greece) and a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Italy), to investigate whether this experimental assembly also works for large whale sampling. In order to distinguish between blow-associated microbes and seawater microbes, we pooled 5 seawater samples from the same area where blow samples’ collection were carried out. The the respiratory microbiota was assessed by using the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene via Illumina Amplicon Sequencing. The pooled water samples contained more bacterial taxa than the blow samples of both wild animals and the sequenced dolphin maintained under human care. The composition of the bacterial community differed between the water samples and between the blow samples of wild cetaceans and that under human care, but these differences may have been mediated by different microbial communities between seawater and aquarium water. The sperm whale’s respiratory microbiome was more similar to the results obtained from wild bottlenose dolphins. Although the number of samples used in this study was limited and sampling and analyses were impaired by several limitations, the results are rather encouraging, as shown by the evident microbial differences between seawater and blow samples, confirmed also by the meta-analysis carried out comparing our results with those obtained in previous studies. Collecting exhaled air from small cetaceans using drones is a challenging process, both logistically and technically. The success in obtaining samples from small cetacean blow in this study in comparison to previous studies is likely due to the distance the sampling kit is suspended from the drone, which reduced the likelihood that the turbulence of the drone propeller interfered with successfully sampling blow, suggested as a factor leading to poor success in previous studies.

Modeling quarantine during epidemics and mass-testing using drones

We extend the classical SIR epidemic spread model by introducing the “quarantined” compartment. We solve (numerically) the differential equations that govern the extended model and quantify how quarantining “flattens the curve” for the proportion of infected population over time. Furthermore, we explore the potential of using drones to deliver tests, enabling mass-testing for the infection; we give a method to estimate the drone fleet needed to deliver the tests in a metropolitan area. Application of our models to COVID-19 spread in Sweden shows how the proposed methods could substantially decrease the peak number of infected people, almost without increasing the duration of the epidemic.

Use of drones in clinical microbiology and infectious diseases: current status, challenges and barriers

BACKGROUND

Drones or unmanned aerial vehicles are autonomous or remotely controlled multipurpose aerial vehicles driven by aerodynamic forces and capable of carrying a payload. Whereas initially used exclusively for military purposes, the use of drones has gradually spread into other areas. Given their great flexibility and favourable costs, the use of drones has also been piloted in various healthcare settings.

OBJECTIVES

We briefly summarize current knowledge regarding the use of drones in healthcare, focusing on infectious diseases and/or microbiology when applicable.

SOURCES

Information was sought through PubMed and extracted from peer-reviewed literature published between January 2010 and August 2019 and from reliable online news sources. The search terms 'drones', 'unmanned aerial vehicles', 'microbiology' and 'medicine' were used.

CONTENT

Peer-reviewed literature on the use of drones in healthcare has steadily increased in recent years. Drones have been successfully evaluated in various pilot programmes and are already implemented in some settings for transporting samples and delivering blood, vaccines, medicines, organs, life-saving medical supplies and equipment. In addition, a promising proof-of-concept 'lab-on-a-drone' was recently presented, as well as several pilot studies showing the benefits of drone use in surveillance and epidemiology of infectious diseases.

IMPLICATIONS

The potential for drone use in clinical microbiology, infectious diseases and epidemiology is vast. Drones may help to increase access to healthcare for individuals that might otherwise not benefit from appropriate care due to remoteness and lack of infrastructure or funds. However, factors such as national airspace legislation and legal medical issues, differences in topography and climates, cost-effectiveness, and community attitudes and acceptance in different cultures and societies currently impede the widespread use of drones. Significant cost savings compared with ground transportation, speed and convenience of delivery, and the booming drone sector will probably drive drone implementation in various areas of medicine in the next 5 years.

An Ancient Lineage of Highly Divergent Parvoviruses Infects both Vertebrate and Invertebrate Hosts

Chapparvoviruses (ChPVs) comprise a divergent, recently identified group of parvoviruses (family Parvoviridae), associated with nephropathy in immunocompromised laboratory mice and with prevalence in deep sequencing results of livestock showing diarrhea. Here, we investigate the biological and evolutionary characteristics of ChPVs via comparative in silico analyses, incorporating sequences derived from endogenous parvoviral elements (EPVs) as well as exogenous parvoviruses. We show that ChPVs are an ancient lineage within the Parvoviridae, clustering separately from members of both currently established subfamilies. Consistent with this, they exhibit a number of characteristic features, including several putative auxiliary protein-encoding genes, and capsid proteins with no sequence-level homology to those of other parvoviruses. Homology modeling indicates the absence of a β-A strand, normally part of the luminal side of the parvoviral capsid protein core. Our findings demonstrate that the ChPV lineage infects an exceptionally broad range of host species, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. Furthermore, we observe that ChPVs found in fish are more closely related to those from invertebrates than they are to those of amniote vertebrates. This suggests that transmission between distantly related host species may have occurred in the past and that the Parvoviridae family can no longer be divided based on host affiliation.

Fin whale singing decreases with increased swimming speed

The attributes of male acoustic advertisement displays are often related to a performer's age, breeding condition and motivation, but these relationships are particularly difficult to study in free-ranging marine mammals. For fin whale singers, we examined the relationships between a singer's swimming speed, song duration and amount of singing. We used a unique set of fin whale singing and swimming data collected in support of the US Navy's marine mammal monitoring programme associated with the Navy's Integrated Undersea Surveillance System. A goal of the programme is to improve understanding of the potential effects of anthropogenic sound sources on baleen whale behaviours and populations. We found that as whales swam faster, some continued to sing, while others did not. If swimming speed is an indication of male stamina, then singing while swimming faster could be a display by which females and/or other males assess a singer's physical fitness and potential reproductive quality. Results have implications for interpreting fin whale singing behaviour and the possible influences of anthropogenic sounds on fin whale mating strategies and breeding success.

Identification of A Novel Picorna-Like Virus, Burpengary Virus, that is Negatively Associated with Chlamydial Disease in the Koala

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are native Australian marsupials whose populations are in decline from a range of threats. Infectious diseases caused by the bacterium Chlamydia pecorum and other pathogens are of particular concern. We analysed 26 poly-A selected RNA-sequencing libraries from a data set designed to study the immune response of koalas to ocular chlamydial infection. Using virus discovery techniques, we identified the coding-complete genome sequence of a novel picorna-like virus, denoted Burpengary virus, that was most common in south-east Queensland. Notably, abundance measurements of the virus across all 26 libraries revealed an inverse relationship between abundance and ocular disease in koalas, suggesting that the co-infection of Burpengary virus and Chlamydia pecorum is inhibited.

Unoccupied Aircraft Systems in Marine Science and Conservation

The use of unoccupied aircraft systems (UASs, also known as drones) in science is growing rapidly. Recent advances in microelectronics and battery technology have resulted in the rapid development of low-cost UASs that are transforming many industries. Drones are poised to revolutionize marine science and conservation, as they provide essentially on-demand remote sensing capabilities at low cost and with reduced human risk. A variety of multirotor, fixed-wing, and transitional UAS platforms are capable of carrying various optical and physical sampling payloads and are being employed in almost every subdiscipline of marine science and conservation. This article provides an overview of the UAS platforms and sensors used in marine science and conservation missions along with example physical, biological, and natural resource management applications and typical analytical workflows. It concludes with details on potential effects of UASs on marine wildlife and a look to the future of UASs in marine science and conservation.

Hidden diversity and evolution of viruses in market fish

Aquaculture is the fastest growing industry worldwide. Aquatic diseases have had enormous economic and environmental impacts in the recent past and the emergence of new aquatic pathogens, particularly viruses, poses a continuous threat. Nevertheless, little is known about the diversity, abundance and evolution of fish viruses. We used a meta-transcriptomic approach to help determine the virome of seemingly healthy fish sold at a market in Sydney, Australia. Specifically, by identifying and quantifying virus transcripts we aimed to determine (i) the abundance of viruses in market fish, (ii) test a key component of epidemiological theory that large and dense host populations harbour a greater number of viruses compared to their more solitary counterparts and (iii) reveal the relative roles of virus–host co-divergence and cross-species transmission in the evolution of fish viruses. The species studied comprised both shoaling fish—eastern sea garfish (Hyporhamphus australis) and Australasian snapper (Chrysophrys auratus)—and more solitary fish—eastern red scorpionfish (Scorpaena jacksoniensis) and largetooth flounder (Pseudorhombus arsius). Our analysis identified twelve potentially novel viruses, eight of which were likely vertebrate-associated across four viral families and that exhibited frequent cross-species transmission. Notably, the most solitary of the fish species studied, the largetooth flounder, harboured the least number of viruses while eastern sea garfish, a densely shoaling fish, had the highest number of viruses. These results support the emerging view that fish harbour a large and largely uncharacterised virome.

Expansion of the metazoan virosphere: progress, pitfalls, and prospects

Metagenomic sequencing has led to a recent and rapid expansion of the animal virome. It has uncovered a multitude of new virus lineages from under-sampled host groups, including many that break up long branches in the virus tree, and many that display unexpected genome sizes and structures. Although there are challenges to inferring the existence of a virus from a `virus-like sequence', in the absence of an isolate the analysis of nucleic acid (including small RNAs) and sequence data can provide considerable confidence. As a consequence, this period of molecular natural history is helping to reshape our views of deep virus evolution.