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Zaki BM, Mohamed AA, Dawoud A, Essam K, Hammouda ZK, Abdelsattar AS, El-Shibiny A. Isolation, screening and characterization of phage. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci 2023; 200:13-60. [PMID: 37739553 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2023.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial resistance threatens public health due to a lack of novel antibacterial classes since the 21st century. Bacteriophages, the most ubiquitous microorganism on Earth and natural predators of bacteria, have the potential to save the world from the post-antibiotic era. Therefore, phage isolation and characterization are in high demand to find suitable phages for therapeutic and bacterial control applications. The chapter presents brief guidance supported by recommendations on the isolation of phages, and initial screening of phage antimicrobial efficacy, in addition to, conducting comprehensive characterization addressing morphological, biological, genomic, and taxonomic features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bishoy Maher Zaki
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt; Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Amira A Mohamed
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Alyaa Dawoud
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt; Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, German University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Kareem Essam
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Zainab K Hammouda
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Abdallah S Abdelsattar
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ayman El-Shibiny
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt; Faculty of Environmental Agricultural Sciences, Arish University, Arish, Egypt
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Cai K, Liu Y, Yue Y, Liu Y, Guo F. Essential Oil Nanoemulsion Hydrogel with Anti-Biofilm Activity for the Treatment of Infected Wounds. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061376. [PMID: 36987156 PMCID: PMC10054311 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The formation of a bacterial biofilm on an infected wound can impede drug penetration and greatly thwart the healing process. Thus, it is essential to develop a wound dressing that can inhibit the growth of and remove biofilms, facilitating the healing of infected wounds. In this study, optimized eucalyptus essential oil nanoemulsions (EEO NEs) were prepared from eucalyptus essential oil, Tween 80, anhydrous ethanol, and water. Afterward, they were combined with a hydrogel matrix physically cross-linked with Carbomer 940 (CBM) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) to prepare eucalyptus essential oil nanoemulsion hydrogels (CBM/CMC/EEO NE). The physical-chemical properties, in vitro bacterial inhibition, and biocompatibility of EEO NE and CBM/CMC/EEO NE were extensively investigated and the infected wound models were proposed to validate the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of CBM/CMC/EEO NE. The results showed that the average particle size of EEO NE was 15.34 ± 3.77 nm with PDI ˂ 0.2, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of EEO NE was 15 mg/mL, and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) against S. aureus was 25 mg/mL. The inhibition and clearance of EEO NE against S. aureus biofilm at 2×MIC concentrations were 77.530 ± 7.292% and 60.700 ± 3.341%, respectively, demonstrating high anti-biofilm activity in vitro. CBM/CMC/EEO NE exhibited good rheology, water retention, porosity, water vapor permeability, and biocompatibility, meeting the requirements for trauma dressings. In vivo experiments revealed that CBM/CMC/EEO NE effectively promoted wound healing, reduced the bacterial load of wounds, and accelerated the recovery of epidermal and dermal tissue cells. Moreover, CBM/CMC/EEO NE significantly down-regulated the expression of two inflammatory factors, IL-6 and TNF-α, and up-regulated three growth-promoting factors, TGF-β1, VEGF, and EGF. Thus, the CBM/CMC/EEO NE hydrogel effectively treated wounds infected with S. aureus, enhancing the healing process. It is expected to be a new clinical alternative for healing infected wounds in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yang Liu
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-754-86503093; Fax: +86-754-86502726
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Zhang Y, Zou G, Islam MS, Liu K, Xue S, Song Z, Ye Y, Zhou Y, Shi Y, Wei S, Zhou R, Chen H, Li J. Combine thermal processing with polyvalent phage LPEK22 to prevent the Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica contamination in food. Food Res Int 2023; 165:112454. [PMID: 36869473 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Thermal processing is the most frequently used method to destruct bacteria in food processing. However, insufficient thermal processing may lead to the outbreak of foodborne illness. This study combined thermal processing with thermostable phage to prevent food contamination. The thermostable phages were screened which can retain activity at 70 °C for 1 h. Among them, the polyvalent phage LPEK22 was obtained to lyse Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica, especially several multi-drug resistant bacteria. In milk (liquid food matrix), LPEK22 significantly reduced the E. coli by 5.00 ± 0.18 log10 CFU/mL and S. enterica by 4.20 ± 0.23 log10 CFU/mL after thermal processing at 63 °C for 30 min. For beef sausage (solid food matrix), LPEK22 significantly reduced the E. coli by 2.34 ± 0.17 log10 CFU/cm2 and S. enterica by 1.54 ± 0.13 log10 CFU/cm2 after thermal processing at 66 °C for 90 s. Genome analysis revealed that LPEK22 was a novel phage with a unique tail spike protein belonging to the family of Ackermannviridae. LPEK22 did not contain lysogenic, drug-resistant, and virulent genes that may compromise the safety of food application. These results determined that LPEK22, a novel polyvalent Ackermannviridae phage, could combine with thermal processing to prevent drug-resistant E. coli and S. enterica both in vitro and in foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Geng Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Md Sharifull Islam
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Center for Cancer Immunology, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Kun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Suqiang Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Zhiyong Song
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Yingwang Ye
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui 230009, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Yuanguo Shi
- Shenzhen Institute of Quality & Safety Inspection and Research, Shenzhen 518000, China
| | - Shaozhong Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Rui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Huanchun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Jinquan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, College of Food Science and Technology, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518000, China.
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Nagel TE, Mutai IJ, Josephs T, Clokie MR. A Brief History of Phage Research and Teaching in Africa. Phage (New Rochelle) 2022; 3:184-193. [PMID: 36793885 PMCID: PMC9917308 DOI: 10.1089/phage.2022.29037.inp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Theodore Josephs
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Martha R.J. Clokie
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
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Ma Y, Zohaib Aslam M, Wu M, Nitin N, Sun G. Strategies and perspectives of developing anti-biofilm materials for improved food safety. Food Res Int 2022; 159:111543. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 06/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Li N, Yuan X, Li C, Chen N, Wang J, Chen B, Yu S, Yu P, Zhang J, Zeng H, Wu S, Yang X, Yang M, Zhang J, Wu Q, Ding Y. A novel Bacillus cereus bacteriophage DLn1 and its endolysin as biocontrol agents against Bacillus cereus in milk. Int J Food Microbiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abdelsattar AS, Hakim TA, Rezk N, Farouk WM, Hassan YY, Gouda SM, El-shibiny A. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Ocimum basilicum L. and Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Extracts and Their Antibacterial Activity in Combination with Phage ZCSE6 and Sensing Properties. J Inorg Organomet Polym Mater. [DOI: 10.1007/s10904-022-02234-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
AbstractOne of the dangerous pathogens that display high resistance to antibiotics is Salmonella enterica (S. enterica), which infects humans and animals. In this study, a new approach was proposed to fight antibiotic-resistant bacteria by using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with adding the phage ZCSE6. The biosynthesized AgNPs were characterized by analysis of spectroscopy profile of the UV–Vis, visualize the morphology, and size with transmission electron microscopy. Both minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were assessed. In addition, the AgNPs were able to control the biofilm formation of S. enterica, also, heavy metals detection by AgNPs and their application in milk. UV–Vis spectra showed a surface resonance peak of 400 and 430 nm corresponding to the formation of AgNPs capping with Ocimum basilicum L. and Hibiscus sabdariffa L., respectively. The MIC and MBC values were 6.25 µg/ml to inhibit the growth of S. enterica and 12.5 µg/ml from killing the bacteria and it was decreased to 1.5 µg/ml when combined with the phage. In the present study, AgNPs were combined with phage ZCSE6 to obtain a synergetic antimicrobial activity. Moreover, it increases the milk’s shelf-life and senses the Cd2+ at a concentration of 1 mM in the water.
Graphical Abstract
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Sobhy H, Soliman EA, Abd El-Tawab AA, Elhofy FI, Askora A, El-Nahas EM, Wareth G, Ahmed W. Isolation, Characterization, and Efficacy of Three Lytic Phages Infecting Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Serovars from Poultry Farms in Egypt. Arch Razi Inst 2021; 76:507-519. [PMID: 34824744 DOI: 10.22092/ari.2021.355760.1719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella serovars are considered a significant threat to veterinary and public health. Developing new antimicrobial compounds that can treat the infection caused by these notorious pathogens is a big challenge. Bacteriophages can be adsorbed on and inhibit the growth of bacteria, providing optimal and promising alternatives to chemical antimicrobial compounds against foodborne pathogens due to their abundance in nature and high host specificity. The objective of the current study was to isolate and characterize new phages from poultry farms and sewage and to evaluate their efficacy against S. Enteritidis isolates. The study reports three lytic phages designated as ϕSET1, ϕSET2, and ϕSET3 isolated from poultry carcasses and sewage samples in Qalubiya governorate Egypt. The effectiveness of phages was evaluated against multidrug-resistant S. Enteritidis strains. Electron microscopy showed that these phages belong to the Siphoviridae family. Phages were tested against 13 bacterial strains to determine their host range. They could infect four S. Enteritidis and one S. Typhimurium; however, they did not infect other tested bacterial species, indicating their narrow infectivity. The bacteriophage's single-step growth curves revealed a latent period of 20 min for ϕSET1 and 30 min for ϕSET2 and ϕSET3. The isolated Salmonella phages prevented the growth of S. Enteritidis for up to 18 hrs. The findings revealed that Salmonella phages could be used as alternative natural antibacterial compounds to combat infection with MDR S. Enteritidis in the poultry industry and represent a step forward to using large panels of phages for eliminating Salmonella from the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Sobhy
- Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt
| | - E A Soliman
- Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt
| | - A A Abd El-Tawab
- Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt
| | - F I Elhofy
- Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt
| | - A Askora
- Department of Microbiology and Botany, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 44519, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - E M El-Nahas
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt
| | - G Wareth
- Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt.,Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Naumburger Str. 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - W Ahmed
- Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh PO Box 13736, Egypt
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Gomez-Garcia J, Chavez-Carbajal A, Segundo-Arizmendi N, Baron-Pichardo MG, Mendoza-Elvira SE, Hernandez-Baltazar E, Hynes AP, Torres-Angeles O. Efficacy of Salmonella Bacteriophage S1 Delivered and Released by Alginate Beads in a Chicken Model of Infection. Viruses 2021; 13:v13101932. [PMID: 34696362 PMCID: PMC8539449 DOI: 10.3390/v13101932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Modern bacteriophage encapsulation methods based on polymers such as alginate have been developed recently for their use in phage therapy for veterinary purposes. In birds, it has been proven that using this delivery system allows the release of the bacteriophage in the small intestine, the site of infection by Salmonella spp. This work designed an approach for phage therapy using encapsulation by ionotropic gelation of the lytic bacteriophage S1 for Salmonella enterica in 2% w/v alginate beads using 2% w/v calcium chloride as crosslinking agent. This formulation resulted in beads with an average size of 3.73 ± 0.04 mm and an encapsulation efficiency of 70%. In vitro, the beads protected the bacteriophages from pH 3 and released them at higher pH. To confirm that this would protect the bacteriophages from gastrointestinal pH changes, we tested the phage infectivity in vivo assay. Using a model chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) infected with Salmonella Enteritidis, we confirmed that after 3 h of the beads delivery, infective phages were present in the chicken’s duodenal and caecal sections. This study demonstrates that our phage formulation is an effective system for release and delivery of bacteriophage S1 against Salmonella Enteritidis with potential use in the poultry sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janeth Gomez-Garcia
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy, Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, 1001 University Avenue, Chamilpa, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico; (J.G.-G.); (N.S.-A.); (M.G.B.-P.); (E.H.-B.)
| | | | - Nallelyt Segundo-Arizmendi
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy, Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, 1001 University Avenue, Chamilpa, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico; (J.G.-G.); (N.S.-A.); (M.G.B.-P.); (E.H.-B.)
| | - Miriam G. Baron-Pichardo
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy, Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, 1001 University Avenue, Chamilpa, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico; (J.G.-G.); (N.S.-A.); (M.G.B.-P.); (E.H.-B.)
| | - Susana E. Mendoza-Elvira
- Laboratory of Virology Postgraduate Field 1, Cuautitlán School of Higher Studies, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 1st May Avenue, Sta María Guadalupe las Torres, Cuautitlán Izcalli 54740, Mexico;
| | - Efren Hernandez-Baltazar
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy, Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, 1001 University Avenue, Chamilpa, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico; (J.G.-G.); (N.S.-A.); (M.G.B.-P.); (E.H.-B.)
| | - Alexander P. Hynes
- Departament of Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada;
- Correspondence: (A.P.H.); (O.T.-A.); Tel.: +1-905-525-9140 (ext. 28155) (A.P.H.); +52-777-3-29-70-00 (ext. 3373) (O.T.-A.)
| | - Oscar Torres-Angeles
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy, Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, 1001 University Avenue, Chamilpa, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico; (J.G.-G.); (N.S.-A.); (M.G.B.-P.); (E.H.-B.)
- Correspondence: (A.P.H.); (O.T.-A.); Tel.: +1-905-525-9140 (ext. 28155) (A.P.H.); +52-777-3-29-70-00 (ext. 3373) (O.T.-A.)
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Abdelsattar AS, Safwat A, Nofal R, Elsayed A, Makky S, El-shibiny A. Isolation and Characterization of Bacteriophage ZCSE6 against Salmonella spp.: Phage Application in Milk. Biologics 2021; 1:164-76. [DOI: 10.3390/biologics1020010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Food safety is very important in the food industry as most pathogenic bacteria can cause food-borne diseases and negatively affect public health. In the milk industry, contamination with Salmonella has always been a challenge, but the risks have dramatically increased as almost all bacteria now show resistance to a wide range of commercial antibiotics. This study aimed to isolate a bacteriophage to be used as a bactericidal agent against Salmonella in milk and dairy products. Here, phage ZCSE6 has been isolated from raw milk sample sand molecularly and chemically characterized. At different multiplicities of infection (MOIs) of 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001, the phage–Salmonella interaction was studied for 6 h at 37 °C and 24 h at 8 °C. In addition, ZCSE6 was tested against Salmonella contamination in milk to examine its lytic activity for 3 h at 37 °C. The results showed that ZCSE6 has a small genome size (<48.5 kbp) and belongs to the Siphovirus family. Phage ZCSE6 revealed a high thermal and pH stability at various conditions that mimic milk manufacturing and supply chain conditions. It also demonstrated a significant reduction in Salmonella concentration in media at various MOIs, with higher bacterial eradication at higher MOI. Moreover, it significantly reduced Salmonella growth (MOI 1) in milk, manifesting a 1000-fold decrease in bacteria concentration following 3 h incubation at 37 °C. The results highlighted the strong ability of ZCSE6 to kill Salmonella and control its growth in milk. Thus, ZCSE6 is recommended as a biocontrol agent in milk to limit bacterial growth and increase the milk shelf-life.
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Abdelsattar A, Dawooud A, Rezk N, Makky S, Safwat A, Richards P, El-shibiny A. How to Train Your Phage: The Recent Efforts in Phage Training. Biologics 2021; 1:70-88. [DOI: 10.3390/biologics1020005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Control of pathogenic bacteria by deliberate application of predatory phages has potential as a powerful therapy against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The key advantages of phage biocontrol over antibacterial chemotherapy are: (1) an ability to self-propagate inside host bacteria, (2) targeted predation of specific species or strains of bacteria, (3) adaptive molecular machinery to overcome resistance in target bacteria. However, realizing the potential of phage biocontrol is dependent on harnessing or adapting these responses, as many phage species switch between lytic infection cycles (resulting in lysis) and lysogenic infection cycles (resulting in genomic integration) that increase the likelihood of survival of the phage in response to external stress or host depletion. Similarly, host range will need to be optimized to make phage therapy medically viable whilst avoiding the potential for deleteriously disturbing the commensal microbiota. Phage training is a new approach to produce efficient phages by capitalizing on the evolved response of wild-type phages to bacterial resistance. Here we will review recent studies reporting successful trials of training different strains of phages to switch into lytic replication mode, overcome bacterial resistance, and increase their host range. This review will also highlight the current knowledge of phage training and future implications in phage applications and phage therapy and summarize the recent pipeline of the magistral preparation to produce a customized phage for clinical trials and medical applications.
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Abdelsattar AS, Nofal R, Makky S, Safwat A, Taha A, El-Shibiny A. The Synergistic Effect of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles and Phage ZCSE2 as a Novel Approach to Combat Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella enterica. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:678. [PMID: 34198823 PMCID: PMC8228988 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10060678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence and evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is considered a public health concern. Salmonella is one of the most common pathogens that cause high mortality and morbidity rates in humans, animals, and poultry annually. In this work, we developed a combination of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with bacteriophage (phage) as an antimicrobial agent to control microbial growth. The synthesized AgNPs with propolis were characterized by testing their color change from transparent to deep brown by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The phage ZCSE2 was found to be stable when combined with AgNPs. Both minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were evaluated for AgNPs, phage, and their combination. The results indicated that MIC and MBC values were equal to 23 µg/mL against Salmonella bacteria at a concentration of 107 CFU/mL. The combination of 0.4× MIC from AgNPs and phage with Multiplicity of Infection (MOI) 0.1 showed an inhibitory effect. This combination of AgNPs and phage offers a prospect of nanoparticles with significantly enhanced antibacterial properties and therapeutic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah S. Abdelsattar
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt; (A.S.A.); (R.N.); (S.M.); (A.S.); (A.T.)
- Center for X-ray and Determination of Structure of Matter, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt
| | - Rana Nofal
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt; (A.S.A.); (R.N.); (S.M.); (A.S.); (A.T.)
| | - Salsabil Makky
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt; (A.S.A.); (R.N.); (S.M.); (A.S.); (A.T.)
| | - Anan Safwat
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt; (A.S.A.); (R.N.); (S.M.); (A.S.); (A.T.)
| | - Amera Taha
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt; (A.S.A.); (R.N.); (S.M.); (A.S.); (A.T.)
| | - Ayman El-Shibiny
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt; (A.S.A.); (R.N.); (S.M.); (A.S.); (A.T.)
- Faculty of Environmental Agricultural Sciences, Arish University, Arish 45511, Egypt
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Guo Y, Li J, Islam MS, Yan T, Zhou Y, Liang L, Connerton IF, Deng K, Li J. Application of a novel phage vB_SalS-LPSTLL for the biological control of Salmonella in foods. Food Res Int 2021; 147:110492. [PMID: 34399488 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella is one of the most common foodborne pathogens around the world. Phages are envisioned as a new strategy to control foodborne pathogenic bacteria and food safety. A Salmonella specific lytic phage vB_SalS-LPSTLL (LPSTLL) was selected for food applications on the basis of lytic range, lytic efficiency, functional stability and characteristics. Phage LPSTLL was able to lyse 11 Salmonella serotypes, which represents the broadest range reported Salmonella phages, and was able to suppress the growth of Salmonella enterica in liquid culture over nine hours. LPSTLL exhibited rapid reproductive activity with a short latent period and a large burst size in one-step growth experiment. LPSTLL remained active over a pH range of 3.0 to 12.0, and at incubation temperatures up to 60 °C for 60 min, indicating wide applicability for food processing and storage. Significant reductions of viable Salmonella were observed in diverse foods (milk, apple juice, chicken and lettuce) with reductions up to 2.8 log CFU/mL recorded for milk. Sensory evaluation indicated that treatment with phage LPSTLL did not alter the visual or tactile quality of food matrices. Genome analysis of LPSTLL indicated the absence of any virulence or antimicrobial resistance genes. Genomic comparisons suggest phage LPSTLL constitutes a novel member of a new genus, the LPSTLLvirus with the potential for Salmonella biocontrol in the food industry.
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14
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Abstract
Novel bacteriophages (phages) possessing a broad host range are consistently and routinely reported, yet there is presently no consensus on the definition of “broad host range.” As phages are increasingly being used in the development of methods for the detection and biocontrol of human pathogens, it is important to address the limitations associated with the host range. For instance, unanticipated host range breadth may result in the detection of nonpathogenic targets, thereby increasing the false-positive rate. Moreover, a broad host range is generally favored in biocontrol applications despite the risk of undesirable ancillary effects against nontarget species. Here, we discuss the research progress, applications, and implications of broad host range phages with a focus on tailed broad host range phages infecting human pathogens of concern in the Agri-Food sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Fong
- Summerland Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Summerland, Canada
- Address correspondence to: Karen Fong, PhD, Summerland Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Postal Box 5000, Summerland BC V0H1Z0, Canada
| | - Catherine W.Y. Wong
- Food, Nutrition and Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Siyun Wang
- Food, Nutrition and Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Pascal Delaquis
- Summerland Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Summerland, Canada
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15
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Abdelsattar AS, Dawoud A, Makky S, Nofal R, Aziz RK, El-Shibiny A. Bacteriophages: from isolation to application. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2021; 23:337-360. [PMID: 33902418 DOI: 10.2174/1389201022666210426092002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacteriophages are considered as a potential alternative to fight pathogenic bacteria during the antibiotic resistance era. With their high specificity, they are being widely used in various applications: medicine, food industry, agriculture, animal farms, biotechnology, diagnosis, etc. Many techniques have been designed by different researchers for phage isolation, purification, and amplification, each of which has strengths and weaknesses. However, all aim at having a reasonably pure phage sample that can be further characterized. Phages can be characterized based on their physiological, morphological or inactivation tests. Microscopy, in particular, has opened a wide gate not only for visualizing phage morphological structure, but also for monitoring biochemistry and behavior. Meanwhile, computational analysis of phage genomes provides more details about phage history, lifestyle, and potential for toxigenic or lysogenic conversion, which translate to safety in biocontrol and phage therapy applications. This review summarizes phage application pipelines at different levels and addresses specific restrictions and knowledge gaps in the field. Recently developed computational approaches, which are used in phage genome analysis, are critically assessed. We hope that this assessment provides researchers with useful insights for selection of suitable approaches for Phage-related research aims and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah S Abdelsattar
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, October Gardens, 6th of October City, Giza, 12578. Egypt
| | - Alyaa Dawoud
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, October Gardens, 6th of October City, Giza, 12578. Egypt
| | - Salsabil Makky
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, October Gardens, 6th of October City, Giza, 12578. Egypt
| | - Rana Nofal
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, October Gardens, 6th of October City, Giza, 12578. Egypt
| | - Ramy K Aziz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Qasr El-Ainy St, Cairo. Egypt
| | - Ayman El-Shibiny
- Center for Microbiology and Phage Therapy, Zewail City of Science and Technology, October Gardens, 6th of October City, Giza, 12578. Egypt
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16
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Abstract
Intracellular pathogens reside in specialised compartments within the host cells restricting the access of antibiotics. Insufficient intracellular delivery of antibiotics along with several other resistance mechanisms weaken the efficacy of current therapies. An alternative to antibiotic therapy could be bacteriophage (phage) therapy. Although phage therapy has been in practice for a century against various bacterial infections, the efficacy of phages against intracellular bacteria is still being explored. In this review, we will discuss the advancement and challenges in phage therapy, particularly against intracellular bacterial pathogens. Finally, we will highlight the uptake mechanisms and approaches to overcome the challenges to phage therapy against intracellular bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avijit Goswami
- Centre for BioSystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - Pallavi Raj Sharma
- Centre for BioSystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - Rachit Agarwal
- Centre for BioSystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
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17
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Kosznik-Kwaśnicka K, Grabowski Ł, Grabski M, Kaszubski M, Górniak M, Jurczak-Kurek A, Węgrzyn G, Węgrzyn A. Bacteriophages vB_Sen-TO17 and vB_Sen-E22, Newly Isolated Viruses from Chicken Feces, Specific for Several Salmonella enterica Strains. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21228821. [PMID: 33233449 PMCID: PMC7700153 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Two newly discovered bacteriophages, isolated from chicken feces and infecting Salmonella enterica strains, are described in this report. These phages have been named vB_Sen-TO17 and vB_Sen-E22, and we present their molecular and functional characterization. Both studied viruses are able to infect several S. enterica strains and develop lytically, but their specific host ranges differ significantly. Electron microscopic analyses of virions have been performed, and full genome sequences were determined and characterized, along with molecular phylogenetic studies. Genomes of vB_Sen-TO17 (ds DNA of 41,658 bp) and vB_Sen-E22 (dsDNA of 108,987 bp) are devoid of homologs of any known or putative gene coding for toxins or any other proteins potentially deleterious for eukaryotic cells. Both phages adsorbed efficiently (>95% adsorbed virions) within 10 min at 42 °C (resembling chicken body temperature) on cells of most tested host strains. Kinetics of lytic development of vB_Sen-TO17 and vB_Sen-E22, determined in one-step growth experiments, indicated that development is complete within 30-40 min at 42 °C, whereas burst sizes vary from 9 to 79 progeny phages per cell for vB_Sen-TO17 and from 18 to 64 for vB_Sen-E22, depending on the host strain. Virions of both phages were relatively stable (from several percent to almost 100% survivability) under various conditions, including acidic and alkaline pH values (from 3 to 12), temperatures from -80 °C to 60 °C, 70% ethanol, chloroform, and 10% DMSO. These characteristics of vB_Sen-TO17 and vB_Sen-E22 indicate that these phages might be considered in further studies on phage therapy, particularly in attempts to eliminate S. enterica from chicken intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kosznik-Kwaśnicka
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kładki 24, 80-822 Gdansk, Poland; (K.K.-K.); (Ł.G.)
| | - Łukasz Grabowski
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kładki 24, 80-822 Gdansk, Poland; (K.K.-K.); (Ł.G.)
| | - Michał Grabski
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (M.K.); (G.W.)
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Mateusz Kaszubski
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (M.K.); (G.W.)
| | - Marcin Górniak
- Department of Molecular Evolution, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (A.J.-K.)
| | - Agata Jurczak-Kurek
- Department of Molecular Evolution, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (A.J.-K.)
| | - Grzegorz Węgrzyn
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (M.K.); (G.W.)
| | - Alicja Węgrzyn
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kładki 24, 80-822 Gdansk, Poland; (K.K.-K.); (Ł.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-58-523-6024
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18
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Kosznik-Kwaśnicka K, Ciemińska K, Grabski M, Grabowski Ł, Górniak M, Jurczak-Kurek A, Węgrzyn G, Węgrzyn A. Characteristics of a Series of Three Bacteriophages Infecting Salmonella enterica Strains. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21176152. [PMID: 32858954 PMCID: PMC7503781 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular and functional characterization of a series of three bacteriophages, vB_SenM-1, vB_SenM-2, and vB_SenS-3, infecting various Salmonella enterica serovars and strains is presented. All these phages were able to develop lytically while not forming prophages. Moreover, they were able to survive at pH 3. The phages revealed different host ranges within serovars and strains of S. enterica, different adsorption rates on host cells, and different lytic growth kinetics at various temperatures (in the range of 25 to 42 °C). They efficiently reduced the number of cells in the bacterial biofilm and decreased the biofilm mass. Whole genome sequences of these phages have been determined and analyzed, including their phylogenetic relationships. In conclusion, we have demonstrated detailed characterization of a series of three bacteriophages, vB_SenM-1, vB_SenM-2, and vB_SenS-3, which reveal favorable features in light of their potential use in phage therapy of humans and animals, as well as for food protection purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kosznik-Kwaśnicka
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kładki 24, 80-822 Gdansk, Poland; (K.K.-K.); (Ł.G.)
| | - Karolina Ciemińska
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (K.C.); (M.G.); (G.W.)
| | - Michał Grabski
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (K.C.); (M.G.); (G.W.)
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Łukasz Grabowski
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kładki 24, 80-822 Gdansk, Poland; (K.K.-K.); (Ł.G.)
| | - Marcin Górniak
- Department of Molecular Evolution, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (A.J.-K.)
| | - Agata Jurczak-Kurek
- Department of Molecular Evolution, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (M.G.); (A.J.-K.)
| | - Grzegorz Węgrzyn
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland; (K.C.); (M.G.); (G.W.)
| | - Alicja Węgrzyn
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kładki 24, 80-822 Gdansk, Poland; (K.K.-K.); (Ł.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-58-523-6024
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19
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Gambino M, Nørgaard Sørensen A, Ahern S, Smyrlis G, Gencay YE, Hendrix H, Neve H, Noben JP, Lavigne R, Brøndsted L. Phage S144, A New Polyvalent Phage Infecting Salmonella spp. and Cronobacter sakazakii. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21155196. [PMID: 32707941 PMCID: PMC7432712 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phages are generally considered species- or even strain-specific, yet polyvalent phages are able to infect bacteria from different genera. Here, we characterize the novel polyvalent phage S144, a member of the Loughboroughvirus genus. By screening 211 Enterobacteriaceae strains, we found that phage S144 forms plaques on specific serovars of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica and on Cronobacter sakazakii. Analysis of phage resistant mutants suggests that the O-antigen of lipopolysaccharide is the phage receptor in both bacterial genera. The S144 genome consists of 53,628 bp and encodes 80 open reading frames (ORFs), but no tRNA genes. In total, 32 ORFs coding for structural proteins were confirmed by ESI-MS/MS analysis, whereas 45 gene products were functionally annotated within DNA metabolism, packaging, nucleotide biosynthesis and phage morphogenesis. Transmission electron microscopy showed that phage S144 is a myovirus, with a prolate head and short tail fibers. The putative S144 tail fiber structure is, overall, similar to the tail fiber of phage Mu and the C-terminus shows amino acid similarity to tail fibers of otherwise unrelated phages infecting Cronobacter. Since all phages in the Loughboroughvirus genus encode tail fibers similar to S144, we suggest that phages in this genus infect Cronobacter sakazakii and are polyvalent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Gambino
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; (M.G.); (A.N.S.); (S.A.); (G.S.); (Y.E.G.)
| | - Anders Nørgaard Sørensen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; (M.G.); (A.N.S.); (S.A.); (G.S.); (Y.E.G.)
| | - Stephen Ahern
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; (M.G.); (A.N.S.); (S.A.); (G.S.); (Y.E.G.)
| | - Georgios Smyrlis
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; (M.G.); (A.N.S.); (S.A.); (G.S.); (Y.E.G.)
| | - Yilmaz Emre Gencay
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; (M.G.); (A.N.S.); (S.A.); (G.S.); (Y.E.G.)
| | - Hanne Hendrix
- Laboratory of Gene Technology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (H.H.); (R.L.)
| | - Horst Neve
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, 24103 Kiel, Germany;
| | - Jean-Paul Noben
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnational University Limburg, Hasselt University, BE3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium;
| | - Rob Lavigne
- Laboratory of Gene Technology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (H.H.); (R.L.)
| | - Lone Brøndsted
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; (M.G.); (A.N.S.); (S.A.); (G.S.); (Y.E.G.)
- Correspondence:
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