Bioethical issues in genome editing by CRISPR-Cas9 technology

Molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of tumour suppressor genes in lung cancer

Tumour suppressor genes play a cardinal role in the development of a large array of human cancers, including lung cancer, which is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers worldwide. Therefore, extensive studies have been committed to deciphering the underlying mechanisms of alterations of tumour suppressor genes in governing tumourigenesis, as well as resistance to cancer therapies. In spite of the encouraging clinical outcomes demonstrated by lung cancer patients on initial treatment, the subsequent unresponsiveness to first-line treatments manifested by virtually all the patients is inherently a contentious issue. In light of the aforementioned concerns, this review compiles the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms of some of the tumour suppressor genes implicated in lung cancer that are either frequently mutated and/or are located on the chromosomal arms having high LOH rates (1p, 3p, 9p, 10q, 13q, and 17p). Our study identifies specific genomic loci prone to LOH, revealing a recurrent pattern in lung cancer cases. These loci, including 3p14.2 (FHIT), 9p21.3 (p16INK4a), 10q23 (PTEN), 17p13 (TP53), exhibit a higher susceptibility to LOH due to environmental factors such as exposure to DNA-damaging agents (carcinogens in cigarette smoke) and genetic factors such as chromosomal instability, genetic mutations, DNA replication errors, and genetic predisposition. Furthermore, this review summarizes the current treatment landscape and advancements for lung cancers, including the challenges and endeavours to overcome it. This review envisages inspired researchers to embark on a journey of discovery to add to the list of what was known in hopes of prompting the development of effective therapeutic strategies for lung cancer.

Role and application of CRISPR-Cas9 in the management of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a serious health issue that has a significant social and economic impact worldwide. One of the key aetiological signs of the disease is a gradual reduction in cognitive function and irreversible neuronal death. According to a 2019 global report, more than 5.8 million people in the United States (USA) alone have received an AD diagnosis, with 45% of those people falling into the 75-84 years age range. According to the predictions, there will be 15 million affected people in the USA by 2050 due to the disease's steadily rising patient population. Cognitive function and memory formation steadily decline as a result of an irreversible neuron loss in AD, a chronic neurodegenerative illness. Amyloid-beta and phosphorylated Tau are produced and accumulate in large amounts, and glial cells are overactive. Additionally, weakened neurotrophin signalling and decreased synapse function are crucial aspects of AD. Memory loss, apathy, depression, and irritability are among the primary symptoms. The aetiology, pathophysiology, and causes of both cognitive decline and synaptic dysfunction are poorly understood despite extensive investigation. CRISPR/Cas9 is a promising gene-editing technique since it can fix certain gene sequences and has a lot of potential for treating AD and other human disorders. Regardless of hereditary considerations, an altered Aβ metabolism is frequently seen in familial and sporadic AD. Therefore, since mutations in the PSEN-1, PSEN-2 and APP genes are a contributing factor to familial AD, CRISPR/Cas9 technology could address excessive Aβ production or mutations in these genes. Overall, the potential of CRISPR-Cas9 technology outweighs it as currently the greatest gene-editing tool available for researching neurodegenerative diseases like AD.

Established and emerging techniques for the study of microglia: visualization, depletion, and fate mapping

The central nervous system (CNS) is an essential hub for neuronal communication. As a major component of the CNS, glial cells are vital in the maintenance and regulation of neuronal network dynamics. Research on microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the CNS, has advanced considerably in recent years, and our understanding of their diverse functions continues to grow. Microglia play critical roles in the formation and regulation of neuronal synapses, myelination, responses to injury, neurogenesis, inflammation, and many other physiological processes. In parallel with advances in microglial biology, cutting-edge techniques for the characterization of microglial properties have emerged with increasing depth and precision. Labeling tools and reporter models are important for the study of microglial morphology, ultrastructure, and dynamics, but also for microglial isolation, which is required to glean key phenotypic information through single-cell transcriptomics and other emerging approaches. Strategies for selective microglial depletion and modulation can provide novel insights into microglia-targeted treatment strategies in models of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative conditions, cancer, and autoimmunity. Finally, fate mapping has emerged as an important tool to answer fundamental questions about microglial biology, including their origin, migration, and proliferation throughout the lifetime of an organism. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion of these established and emerging techniques, with applications to the study of microglia in development, homeostasis, and CNS pathologies.

Hydrogen production in microbial electrolysis cells with biocathodes

Electroautotrophic microbes at biocathodes in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) can catalyze the hydrogen evolution reaction with low energy demand, facilitating long-term stable performance through specific and renewable biocatalysts. However, MECs have not yet reached commercialization due to a lack of understanding of the optimal microbial strains and reactor configurations for achieving high performance. Here, we critically analyze the criteria for the inocula selection, with a focus on the effect of hydrogenase activity and microbe-electrode interactions. We also evaluate the impact of the reactor design and key parameters, such as membrane type, composition, and electrode surface area on internal resistance, mass transport, and pH imbalances within MECs. This analysis paves the way for advancements that could propel biocathode-assisted MECs toward scalable hydrogen gas production.

CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Therapy for Glioblastoma: A Scoping Review

This scoping review examines the use of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing in glioblastoma (GBM), a predominant and aggressive brain tumor. Categorizing gene targets into distinct groups, this review explores their roles in cell cycle regulation, microenvironmental dynamics, interphase processes, and therapy resistance reduction. The complexity of CRISPR-Cas9 applications in GBM research is highlighted, providing unique insights into apoptosis, cell proliferation, and immune responses within the tumor microenvironment. The studies challenge conventional perspectives on specific genes, emphasizing the potential therapeutic implications of manipulating key molecular players in cell cycle dynamics. Exploring CRISPR/Cas9 gene therapy in GBMs yields significant insights into the regulation of cellular processes, spanning cell interphase, renewal, and migration. Researchers, by precisely targeting specific genes, uncover the molecular orchestration governing cell proliferation, growth, and differentiation during critical phases of the cell cycle. The findings underscore the potential of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in unraveling the complex dynamics of the GBM microenvironment, offering promising avenues for targeted therapies to curb GBM growth. This review also outlines studies addressing therapy resistance in GBM, employing CRISPR/Cas9 to target genes associated with chemotherapy resistance, showcasing its transformative potential in effective GBM treatments.

The CRISPR Revolution: Unraveling the mysteries of Life's genetic code

A biotechnological revolution is triggered by CRISPR-Cas systems' variety, measured quality, and proficiency. Identifying nucleic acid biomarkers, one of the methods that use CRISPR for diagnosis, is an extremely sensitive diagnostic method.A broad range of infectious and noninfecting diseases, mutations, and CRISPR deletions associated with genetic disorders have been detected using diagnostics. Furthermore, this technology is used to test proteins and micromolecules. We focus on how Cas proteins can be used to detect diseases in genes, agriculture, and cancer therapy. Furthermore, CRISPR technology has many negative impacts on the health of living organisms, environmental and population structures in spite of its numerous contributions to biomedical science. Therefore, an investigation into the impact of genome editing on nontargeted species is important for these reasons. CRISPR in the future is briefly discussed towards the end of this review.

Comprehensive review of CRISPR-based gene editing: mechanisms, challenges, and applications in cancer therapy

The CRISPR system is a revolutionary genome editing tool that has the potential to revolutionize the field of cancer research and therapy. The ability to precisely target and edit specific genetic mutations that drive the growth and spread of tumors has opened up new possibilities for the development of more effective and personalized cancer treatments. In this review, we will discuss the different CRISPR-based strategies that have been proposed for cancer therapy, including inactivating genes that drive tumor growth, enhancing the immune response to cancer cells, repairing genetic mutations that cause cancer, and delivering cancer-killing molecules directly to tumor cells. We will also summarize the current state of preclinical studies and clinical trials of CRISPR-based cancer therapy, highlighting the most promising results and the challenges that still need to be overcome. Safety and delivery are also important challenges for CRISPR-based cancer therapy to become a viable clinical option. We will discuss the challenges and limitations that need to be overcome, such as off-target effects, safety, and delivery to the tumor site. Finally, we will provide an overview of the current challenges and opportunities in the field of CRISPR-based cancer therapy and discuss future directions for research and development. The CRISPR system has the potential to change the landscape of cancer research, and this review aims to provide an overview of the current state of the field and the challenges that need to be overcome to realize this potential.

Navigating the Post-COVID-19 Immunological Era: Understanding Long COVID-19 and Immune Response

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the world unprecedentedly, with both positive and negative impacts. COVID-19 significantly impacted the immune system, and understanding the immunological consequences of COVID-19 is essential for developing effective treatment strategies. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively explore and provide insights into the immunological aspects of long COVID-19, a phenomenon where individuals continue to experience a range of symptoms and complications, even after the acute phase of COVID-19 infection has subsided. The immune system responds to the initial infection by producing various immune cells and molecules, including antibodies, T cells, and cytokines. However, in some patients, this immune response becomes dysregulated, leading to chronic inflammation and persistent symptoms. Long COVID-19 encompasses diverse persistent symptoms affecting multiple organ systems, including the respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, and gastrointestinal systems. In the post-COVID-19 immunological era, long COVID-19 and its impact on immune response have become a significant concern. Post-COVID-19 immune pathology, including autoimmunity and immune-mediated disorders, has also been reported in some patients. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of long COVID-19, its relationship to immunological responses, and the impact of post-COVID-19 immune pathology on patient outcomes. Additionally, the review addresses the current and potential treatments for long COVID-19, including immunomodulatory therapies, rehabilitation programs, and mental health support, all of which aim to improve the quality of life for individuals with long COVID-19. Understanding the complex interplay between the immune system and long COVID-19 is crucial for developing targeted therapeutic strategies and providing optimal care in the post-COVID-19 era.

Liposomal nanocarriers containing siRNA as small molecule-based drugs to overcome cancer drug resistance

This review discusses the application of nanoliposomes containing siRNA/drug to overcome multidrug resistance for all types of cancer treatments. As drug resistance-associated factors are overexpressed in many cancer cell types, pumping chemotherapy drugs out of the cytoplasm leads to an inadequate therapeutic response. The siRNA/drug-loaded nanoliposomes are a promising approach to treating multidrug-resistant cancer, as they can effectively transmit a small-molecule drug into the target cytoplasm, ensuring that the drug binds efficiently. Moreover, nanoliposome-based therapeutics with advances in nanotechnology can effectively deliver siRNA to cancer cells. Overall, nanoliposomes have the potential to effectively deliver siRNA and small-molecule drugs in a targeted manner and are thus a promising tool for the treatment of cancer and other diseases.

Biomaterials-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery: recent challenges and opportunities in gene therapy

The use of biomaterials in delivering CRISPR/Cas9 for gene therapy in infectious diseases holds tremendous potential. This innovative approach combines the advantages of CRISPR/Cas9 with the protective properties of biomaterials, enabling accurate and efficient gene editing while enhancing safety. Biomaterials play a vital role in shielding CRISPR/Cas9 components, such as lipid nanoparticles or viral vectors, from immunological processes and degradation, extending their effectiveness. By utilizing the flexibility of biomaterials, tailored systems can be designed to address specific genetic diseases, paving the way for personalized therapeutics. Furthermore, this delivery method offers promising avenues in combating viral illnesses by precisely modifying pathogen genomes, and reducing their pathogenicity. Biomaterials facilitate site-specific gene modifications, ensuring effective delivery to infected cells while minimizing off-target effects. However, challenges remain, including optimizing delivery efficiency, reducing off-target effects, ensuring long-term safety, and establishing scalable production techniques. Thorough research, pre-clinical investigations, and rigorous safety evaluations are imperative for successful translation from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we discussed how CRISPR/Cas9 delivery using biomaterials revolutionizes gene therapy and infectious disease treatment, offering precise and safe editing capabilities with the potential to significantly improve human health and quality of life.

CRISPR-Based Gene Editing: a Modern Approach for Study and Treatment of Cancer

The development and emergence of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) as a genome-editing technology have created a plethora of opportunities in genetic engineering. The ability of sequence-specific addition or removal of DNA in an efficient and cost-effective manner has revolutionized modern research in the field of life science and healthcare. CRISPR is widely used as a genome engineering tool in clinical studies for observing gene expression and metabolic pathway regulations in detail. Even in the case of transgenic research and personalized gene manipulation studies, CRISPR-based technology is used extensively. To understand and even to correct the underlying genetic problem is of cancer, CRISPR-based technology can be used. Various kinds of work is going on throughout the world which are attempting to target different genes in order to discover novel and effective methodologies for the treatment of cancer. In this review, we provide a brief overview on the application of CRISPR gene editing technology in cancer treatment focusing on the key aspects of cancer screening, modelling and therapy techniques.

Evolution of CRISPR/Cas Systems for Precise Genome Editing

The bacteria-derived CRISPR/Cas (an acronym for regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein) system is currently the most widely used, versatile, and convenient tool for genome engineering. CRISPR/Cas-based technologies have been applied to disease modeling, gene therapies, transcriptional modulation, and diagnostics. Nevertheless, some challenges remain, such as the risk of immunological reactions or off-target effects. To overcome these problems, many new methods and CRISPR/Cas-based tools have been developed. In this review, we describe the current classification of CRISPR systems and new precise genome-editing technologies, summarize the latest applications of this technique in several fields of research, and, finally, discuss CRISPR/Cas system limitations, ethical issues, and challenges.

Genetic modification strategies for enhancing plant resilience to abiotic stresses in the context of climate change

Enhancing the resilience of plants to abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, heat, and cold, is crucial for ensuring global food security challenge in the context of climate change. The adverse effects of climate change, characterized by rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events, pose significant threats to agricultural systems worldwide. Genetic modification strategies offer promising approaches to develop crops with improved abiotic stress tolerance. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of various genetic modification techniques employed to enhance plant resilience. These strategies include the introduction of stress-responsive genes, transcription factors, and regulatory elements to enhance stress signaling pathways. Additionally, the manipulation of hormone signaling pathways, osmoprotectant accumulation, and antioxidant defense mechanisms is discussed. The use of genome editing tools, such as CRISPR-Cas9, for precise modification of target genes related to stress tolerance is also explored. Furthermore, the challenges and future prospects of genetic modification for abiotic stress tolerance are highlighted. Understanding and harnessing the potential of genetic modification strategies can contribute to the development of resilient crop varieties capable of withstanding adverse environmental conditions caused by climate change, thereby ensuring sustainable agricultural productivity and food security.

Comparative ethical evaluation of epigenome editing and genome editing in medicine: first steps and future directions

Targeted modifications of the human epigenome, epigenome editing (EE), are around the corner. For EE, techniques similar to genome editing (GE) techniques are used. While in GE the genetic information is changed by directly modifying DNA, intervening in the epigenome requires modifying the configuration of DNA, for example, how it is folded. This does not come with alterations in the base sequence ('genetic code'). To date, there is almost no ethical debate about EE, whereas the discussions about GE are voluminous. Our article introduces EE into bioethics by translating knowledge from science to ethics and by comparing the risks of EE with those of GE. We, first (I), make the case that a broader ethical debate on EE is due, provide scientific background on EE, compile potential use-cases and recap previous debates. We then (II) compare EE and GE and suggest that the severity of risks of novel gene technologies depends on three factors: (i) the choice of an ex vivo versus an in vivo editing approach, (ii) the time of intervention and intervention windows and (iii) the targeted diseases. Moreover, we show why germline EE is not effective and reject the position of strong epigenetic determinism. We conclude that EE is not always ethically preferable to GE in terms of risks, and end with suggestions for next steps in the current ethical debate on EE by briefly introducing ethical challenges of new areas of preventive applications of EE (III).

Application of CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology in various fields: A review

CRISPR-Cas9 has emerged as a revolutionary tool that enables precise and efficient modifications of the genetic material. This review provides a comprehensive overview of CRISPR-Cas9 technology and its applications in genome editing. We begin by describing the fundamental principles of CRISPR-Cas9 technology, explaining how the system utilizes a single guide RNA (sgRNA) to direct the Cas9 nuclease to specific DNA sequences in the genome, resulting in targeted double-stranded breaks. In this review, we provide in-depth explorations of CRISPR-Cas9 technology and its applications in agriculture, medicine, environmental sciences, fisheries, nanotechnology, bioinformatics, and biotechnology. We also highlight its potential, ongoing research, and the ethical considerations and controversies surrounding its use. This review might contribute to the understanding of CRISPR-Cas9 technology and its implications in various fields, paving the way for future developments and responsible applications of this transformative technology.

Unlocking the Mysteries, Bridging the Gap, and Unveiling the Multifaceted Potential of Stem Cell Therapy for Cardiac Tissue Regeneration: A Narrative Review of Current Literature, Ethical Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Revolutionary advancements in regenerative medicine have brought stem cell therapy to the forefront, offering promising prospects for the regeneration of ischemic cardiac tissue. Yet, its full efficacy, safety, and role in treating ischemic heart disease (IHD) remain limited. This literature review explores the intricate mechanisms underlying stem cell therapy. Furthermore, we unravel the innovative approaches employed to bolster stem cell survival, enhance differentiation, and seamlessly integrate them within the ischemic cardiac tissue microenvironment. Our comprehensive analysis uncovers how stem cells enhance cell survival, promote angiogenesis, and modulate the immune response. Stem cell therapy harnesses a multifaceted mode of action, encompassing paracrine effects and direct cell replacement. As our review progresses, we underscore the imperative for standardized protocols, comprehensive preclinical and clinical studies, and careful regulatory considerations. Lastly, we explore the integration of tissue engineering and genetic modifications, envisioning a future where stem cell therapy reigns supreme in regenerative medicine.

Forty years of research and development on forensic genetics: A bibliometric analysis

The current study aims to investigate the research publication trends in the field of forensic genetics using Bibliometric analysis. An extensive search of the Scopus database was conducted to identify scholarly articles on forensic genetics published between 1977 and 2022, and a data set comprising 2945 articles was obtained. The analysis was carried out using VOSviewer, RStudio, MS Excel and MS Access to investigate the annual publication trend, most productive journals, organizations/authors/countries, authorship and citation patterns, most cited documents/articles and co-occurrence of keywords. The results revealed the first article in the field of forensic genetics was published in 1977. By the end of 1999, only 15 articles were published. Since then, there has been a considerable increase in the yearly number of publications and post-2006, there were more than 100 yearly published articles. USA, China, Spain, Germany and United Kingdom were found to be the most productive countries. Among various organizations, the Institute of Legal Medicine, Innsbruck Medical University, Austria was found to be the most productive organization. In terms of the number of publications and citations, Morling N. was found to be the most prolific author. The highest number of articles were published in Forensic Science International: Genetics, contributing about 34% of the total articles published in different sources/journals. The document with the highest number of citations was "HOMER N, 2008, PLOS GENET", with a total of 750 citations. The most frequent keywords were forensic genetics and forensic science, followed by STR, population genetics, DNA, mt-DNA and DNA-typing. The results also revealed that there had been collaborative research among countries, organizations and authors, which helps in the exchange of ideas across disciplines, developing new skills, getting access to financial resources and generating quality results.

Advances in Genetic Editing of the Human Embryo

BACKGROUND

Genetic engineering has allowed a major development of research in this field, with specialists attempting to edit the human genome, after the successful editing of the genomes of plants and animals. However, human gene editing technologies are at the center of ethical debates around the world.

AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY

Ethical concerns about genetic editing of the human embryo raise several issues that can be viewed through the prism of optimism and reluctance leading to a number of recommendations regarding the acceptance of what may soon become a reality.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was conducted through PubMed, MEDLINE, Plus, Scopus, and Web of Science (2015-2022) using combinations of keywords, including: human genome or gene editing plus ethics.

ETHICS AND THERAPEUTIC ADVANCES

Gene therapy is seen by researchers as a way to solve congenital diseases, multifactorial diseases in general or specific diseases such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, or can increase resistance to HIV infection. Genome editing technologies, germline gene editing, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats gene editing technology, technologies such as zinc finger nucleases are not only advanced gene therapies that require solving technical problems, but also techniques that require complex and complete analysis of ethical problems. Genetic engineering raises many ethical concerns such as: safety concerns especially the risk of off-target effects; autonomy of the individual-with the limitation of the future generations to consent for an intervention over their genome; social justice-keeping in mind the costs of the procedures and their availability to the general population. Discussions can go further from questions such as "How can we do this?" to questions such as "Should we do this?" or "Is society ready to accept this technology and is it able to manage it rationally?"

CONCLUSIONS

The ethics of biomedical research should be based on global dialogue, on the involvement of experts and the public, to achieve a broad social consensus. The fundamental review of the ethics of genetics is a desire and an opportunity of the current period.

Ethical Perspectives of Therapeutic Human Genome Editing From Multiple and Diverse Viewpoints: A Scoping Review

Human genome editing has been increasingly explored to determine if it can be used to eradicate genetic diseases like sickle cell disease, but it has also been surrounded by a wide variety of ethical dilemmas. The purpose of this review was to conduct a scoping review of the ethics of therapeutic human genome editing in terms of philosophy, theology, public perspectives, and research ethics. A systemized search of PubMed, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, and Web of Science was conducted. The initial search resulted in 4,445 articles, and after removing 1,750 duplicates and screening the remaining 2,695 articles, 27 final articles were selected for the final analysis. From a philosophical and theological standpoint, therapeutic human genome editing was generally ethically acceptable. Worldwide public perspectives were also in agreement except for the Oceanic region, which disagreed mainly due to the possible effects on future generations. Lastly, human research ethics revealed that women were not always included in informed consent, and that child autonomy needs to be preserved. Further research is needed to determine adverse effects on the mother, fetus, and future generations.

CRISPR-CasB technology in forensic DNA analysis: challenges and solutions

CRISPR-Cas technology has revolutionized the field of biotechnology with its precise therapeutic use from genetic as well as infectious diseases point of view. This technology is rapidly evolving to single tool enabling site-directed cut in the genome and highly specific activation or inhibition of gene expression or the exchange of single bases. Besides clinical applications, CRISPR-Cas technology has also shown promising use in the field of forensic DNA analysis. Enrichment of targeted genetic marker for identification followed by sequencing and non-PCR-dependent technique ensures the use of CRISPR-Cas technology in challenging forensic biological samples. The use of this advanced technology is also deemed helpful in mixed profile attribution, mostly in LCN contributors and the generation of a useful DNA profile in degraded samples. Besides its useful applications in forensic DNA analysis, CRISPR-Cas technology poses a huge threat from the generation of ghost DNA profiles by modification/alteration of target genetic markers. Forensic DNA analysts should carry out analysis of additional markers such as non-CODIS markers, Y-, X-chromosome markers, and mitochondrial DNA sequencing in a suspected ghost DNA profile case. KEY POINTS: • CRISPR-Cas9 technique is useful in analyzing LCN, mixed and degraded samples • Alteration of DNA using this technique can lead to generation of ghost DNA profiles • Alternative genetic markers and methylation pattern may detect a ghost DNA profile.

CRISPR-Cas9: el debate bioético más allá de la línea germinal

El sistema CRISPR-Cas9 es una tecnología de edición genética que, además de ampliar las posibilidades en investigación científica, despierta reflexiones asociadas a la dignidad humana, el control biológico, la terapia y la mejora genética. Se revisaron las discusiones bioéticas asociadas a los desafíos y las repercusiones que suscita su aplicación. Como resultado, los cuestionamientos bioéticos tienden a problematizar la aplicación en organismos no humanos, en la investigación básica y en la línea somática y germinal humana. Para concluir, falta incrementar los niveles de seguridad y efectividad para que los beneficios superen los riesgos y, de esta forma, sea posible disminuir las preocupaciones bioéticas y aumentar la credibilidad en el uso de la técnica.

An Insight into Modern Targeted Genome-Editing Technologies with a Special Focus on CRISPR/Cas9 and its Applications

Genome-editing technology has enabled scientists to make changes in model organisms' DNA at the genomic level to get biotechnologically important products from them. Most commonly employed technologies for this purpose are transcription activator like effector nucleases (TALENs), homing-endonucleases or meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) associated protein 9 (Cas9). Among these tools, CRISPR/Cas9 is most preferred because it's easy to use, has a small mutation rate, has great effectiveness, low cost of development, and decreased rate of advancement. CRISPR/Cas9 has a lot of applications in plants, animals, humans, and microbes. It also has applications in many fields such as horticulture, cancer, food biotechnology, and targeted human genome treatments. CRISPR technology has shown great potential for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic to provide early and easy detection methods, possible treatment, and vaccine development. In the present review, genome-editing tools with their basic assembly and features have been discussed. Exceptional notice has been paid to CRISPR technology on basis of its structure and significant applications in humans, plants, animals, and microbes such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The review has also shed a little light on current CRISPR challenges and future perspectives.

CRISPR Technology in Gene-Editing-Based Detection and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2

Outbreak and rapid spread of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by coronavirus acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) caused severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) that started in Wuhan, and has become a global problem because of the high rate of human-to-human transmission and severe respiratory infections. Because of high prevalence of SARS-CoV-2, which threatens many people worldwide, rapid diagnosis and simple treatment are needed. Genome editing is a nucleic acid-based approach to altering the genome by artificially changes in genetic information and induce irreversible changes in the function of target gene. Clustered, regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR/Cas) could be a practical and straightforward approach to this disease. CRISPR/Cas system contains Cas protein, which is controlled by a small RNA molecule to create a double-stranded DNA gap. Evidence suggested that CRISPR/Cas was also usable for diagnosis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this review study, we discoursed on application of CRISPR technology in detection and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Another aspect of this study was to introduce potential future problems in use of CRISPR/Cas technology.

From Descriptive to Functional Genomics of Leukemias Focusing on Genome Engineering Techniques

Genome engineering makes the precise manipulation of DNA sequences possible in a cell. Therefore, it is essential for understanding gene function. Meganucleases were the start of genome engineering, and it continued with the discovery of Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), followed by Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs). They can generate double-strand breaks at a desired target site in the genome, and therefore can be used to knock in mutations or knock out genes in the same way. Years later, genome engineering was transformed by the discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR). Implementation of CRISPR systems involves recognition guided by RNA and the precise cleaving of DNA molecules. This property proves its utility in epigenetics and genome engineering. CRISPR has been and is being continuously successfully used to model mutations in leukemic cell lines and control gene expression. Furthermore, it is used to identify targets and discover drugs for immune therapies. The descriptive and functional genomics of leukemias is discussed in this study, with an emphasis on genome engineering methods. The CRISPR/Cas9 system's challenges, viewpoints, limits, and solutions are also explored.

Xenogeneic support for the recovery of human donor organs

VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Impact of CRISPR-Cas9-Based Genome Engineering in Farm Animals

Humans are sorely over-dependent on livestock for their daily basic need of food in the form of meat, milk, and eggs. Therefore, genetic engineering and transgenesis provide the opportunity for more significant gains and production in a short span of time. One of the best strategies is the genetic alteration of livestock to enhance the efficiency of food production (e.g., meat and milk), animal health, and welfare (animal population and disease). Moreover, genome engineering in the bovine is majorly focused on subjects such as disease resistance (e.g., tuberculosis), eradicate allergens (e.g., beta-lactoglobulin knock-out), products generation (e.g., meat from male and milk from female), male or female birth specifically (animal sexing), the introduction of valuable traits (e.g., stress tolerance and disease resistance) and their wellbeing (e.g., hornlessness). This review addressed the impressive genome engineering method CRISPR, its fundamental principle for generating highly efficient target-specific guide RNA, and the accompanying web-based tools. However, we have covered the remarkable roadmap of the CRISPR method from its conception to its use in cattle. Additionally, we have updated the comprehensive information on CRISPR-based gene editing in cattle.

Therapeutic Genome Editing and In Vivo Delivery

Improvements in the understanding of human genetics and its roles in disease development and prevention have led to an increased interest in therapeutic genome editing via the use of engineered nucleases. Various approaches have been explored in the past focusing on the development of an effective and safe system for sequence-specific editing. Compared to earlier nucleases such as zinc finger nuclease and transcription activator-like effector nuclease, the relatively low cost and ease of producing clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) systems have made therapeutic genome editing significantly more feasible. CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has shown great potential to correct genetic mutations implicated in monogenic diseases and to eradicate latent or chronic viral infections in preclinical studies. Several CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics have reached the clinical stage, including treatments for inherited red blood cell disorders and Leber Congenital Amaurosis 10, as well as CRISPR/Cas9-edited T cells designed to target and destroy cancer cells. Further advances in therapeutic genome editing will rely on a safe and more efficient method of in vivo CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and improved efficiency of homology-directed repair for site-specific gene insertion or replacement. While other reviews have focused on one or two aspects of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, this review aims to provide a summary of the mechanisms of genome editing, the reasons for the emerging interest in CRISPR/Cas9 compared to other engineered nucleases, the current progress in developing CRISPR/Cas9 delivery systems, and the current preclinical and clinical applications of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing.

Novel CRISPR-Cas Systems: An Updated Review of the Current Achievements, Applications, and Future Research Perspectives

According to Darwin's theory, endless evolution leads to a revolution. One such example is the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-Cas system, an adaptive immunity system in most archaea and many bacteria. Gene editing technology possesses a crucial potential to dramatically impact miscellaneous areas of life, and CRISPR-Cas represents the most suitable strategy. The system has ignited a revolution in the field of genetic engineering. The ease, precision, affordability of this system is akin to a Midas touch for researchers editing genomes. Undoubtedly, the applications of this system are endless. The CRISPR-Cas system is extensively employed in the treatment of infectious and genetic diseases, in metabolic disorders, in curing cancer, in developing sustainable methods for fuel production and chemicals, in improving the quality and quantity of food crops, and thus in catering to global food demands. Future applications of CRISPR-Cas will provide benefits for everyone and will save countless lives. The technology is evolving rapidly; therefore, an overview of continuous improvement is important. In this review, we aim to elucidate the current state of the CRISPR-Cas revolution in a tailor-made format from its discovery to exciting breakthroughs at the application level and further upcoming trends related to opportunities and challenges including ethical concerns.

Genomic Analysis, Progress and Future Perspectives in Dairy Cattle Selection: A Review

Genomics comprises a set of current and valuable technologies implemented as selection tools in dairy cattle commercial breeding programs. The intensive progeny testing for production and reproductive traits based on genomic breeding values (GEBVs) has been crucial to increasing dairy cattle productivity. The knowledge of key genes and haplotypes, including their regulation mechanisms, as markers for productivity traits, may improve the strategies on the present and future for dairy cattle selection. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) such as quantitative trait loci (QTL), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), or single-step genomic best linear unbiased prediction (ssGBLUP) methods have already been included in global dairy programs for the estimation of marker-assisted selection-derived effects. The increase in genetic progress based on genomic predicting accuracy has also contributed to the understanding of genetic effects in dairy cattle offspring. However, the crossing within inbred-lines critically increased homozygosis with accumulated negative effects of inbreeding like a decline in reproductive performance. Thus, inaccurate-biased estimations based on empirical-conventional models of dairy production systems face an increased risk of providing suboptimal results derived from errors in the selection of candidates of high genetic merit-based just on low-heritability phenotypic traits. This extends the generation intervals and increases costs due to the significant reduction of genetic gains. The remarkable progress of genomic prediction increases the accurate selection of superior candidates. The scope of the present review is to summarize and discuss the advances and challenges of genomic tools for dairy cattle selection for optimizing breeding programs and controlling negative inbreeding depression effects on productivity and consequently, achieving economic-effective advances in food production efficiency. Particular attention is given to the potential genomic selection-derived results to facilitate precision management on modern dairy farms, including an overview of novel genome editing methodologies as perspectives toward the future.

Patents, ethics, biosafety and regulation using CRISPR technology

In this review chapter, we provide full comprehensive analysis on the patent, ethics and biosafety regulation with respect to the application of CRISPR technology in mammalian systems. We focused on recent development in CRISPR technology and its patent landscape between countries such as US, European Union, China and Australia. Further, we emphasized on the current scenarios on the ethics regulations with respect to CRISPR research, its applicability in patent and technology transfer. Finally, we elaborated on the biosafety regulation on CRISPR/Cas9 technology application in both mammalian and non-mammalian host system.

Biological processes and key druggable targets involved in age-associated memory loss: A systematic review

Age-associated memory loss is highly prevalent in the elder population. The inception of neurodegenerative diseases acts as a causative factor for the onset of memory loss in aged individuals. The pathophysiological mechanisms of memory loss associated with the onset of neurodegenerative diseases and normal aging processes share certain similarities as well as differences. The normal age-associated memory loss is attributed to the impairment of calcium metabolism, dysregulated cholesterol metabolism, the prevalence of oxidative stress, inappropriate functioning of hormones as well as genetic factors. Vital information regarding the key biological processes and the druggable targets involved in the onset of memory loss in the elder population has been provided in this article. The genomic and proteomic profiles of key druggable targets retrieved from the experimental evidence, co-expression studies and databases are also presented in this article. The genomic and proteomic information of druggable targets will aid in the identification of therapeutic agents which could effectively regulate the key biological processes involved in the age-associated memory loss.