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Banholzer N, Schmutz R, Middelkoop K, Hella J, Egger M, Wood R, Fenner L. Airborne transmission risks of tuberculosis and COVID-19 in schools in South Africa, Switzerland, and Tanzania: Modeling of environmental data. PLOS Glob Public Health 2024; 4:e0002800. [PMID: 38236801 PMCID: PMC10796007 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0002800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic renewed interest in airborne transmission of respiratory infections, particularly in congregate indoor settings, such as schools. We modeled transmission risks of tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb) and COVID-19 (caused by SARS-CoV-2) in South African, Swiss and Tanzanian secondary schools. We estimated the risks of infection with the Wells-Riley equation, expressed as the median with 2.5% and 97.5% quantiles (credible interval [CrI]), based on the ventilation rate and the duration of exposure to infectious doses (so-called quanta). We computed the air change rate (ventilation) using carbon dioxide (CO2) as a tracer gas and modeled the quanta generation rate based on reported estimates from the literature. The share of infectious students in the classroom is determined by country-specific estimates of pulmonary TB. For SARS-CoV-2, the number of infectious students was estimated based on excess mortality to mitigate the bias from country-specific reporting and testing. Average CO2 concentration (parts per million [ppm]) was 1,610 ppm in South Africa, 1,757 ppm in Switzerland, and 648 ppm in Tanzania. The annual risk of infection for Mtb was 22.1% (interquartile range [IQR] 2.7%-89.5%) in South Africa, 0.7% (IQR 0.1%-6.4%) in Switzerland, and 0.5% (IQR 0.0%-3.9%) in Tanzania. For SARS-CoV-2, the monthly risk of infection was 6.8% (IQR 0.8%-43.8%) in South Africa, 1.2% (IQR 0.1%-8.8%) in Switzerland, and 0.9% (IQR 0.1%-6.6%) in Tanzania. The differences in transmission risks primarily reflect a higher incidence of SARS-CoV-2 and particularly prevalence of TB in South Africa, but also higher air change rates due to better natural ventilation of the classrooms in Tanzania. Global comparisons of the modeled risk of infectious disease transmission in classrooms can provide high-level information for policy-making regarding appropriate infection control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Banholzer
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Remo Schmutz
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Keren Middelkoop
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Desmond Tutu Health Centre, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jerry Hella
- Ifakara Health Institute, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Matthias Egger
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology & Research, School of Public Health & Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Robin Wood
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Desmond Tutu Health Centre, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Lukas Fenner
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Dimitroulopoulou S, Dudzińska MR, Gunnarsen L, Hägerhed L, Maula H, Singh R, Toyinbo O, Haverinen-Shaughnessy U. Indoor air quality guidelines from across the world: An appraisal considering energy saving, health, productivity, and comfort. Environ Int 2023; 178:108127. [PMID: 37544267 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Buildings are constructed and operated to satisfy human needs and improve quality of life. Good indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort are prerequisites for human health and well-being. For their provision, buildings often rely on heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, which may lead to higher energy consumption. This directly impacts energy efficiency goals and the linked climate change considerations. The balance between energy use, optimum IAQ and thermal comfort calls for scientifically solid and well-established limit values for exposures experienced by building occupants in indoor spaces, including homes, schools, and offices. The present paper aims to appraise limit values for selected indoor pollutants reported in the scientific literature, and to present how they are handled in international and national guidelines and standards. The pollutants include carbon dioxide (CO2), formaldehyde (CH2O), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and radon (Rn). Furthermore, acknowledging the particularly strong impact on energy use from HVAC, ventilation, indoor temperature (T), and relative humidity (RH) are also included, as they relate to both thermal comfort and the possibilities to avoid moisture related problems, such as mould growth and proliferation of house dust mites. Examples of national regulations for these parameters are presented, both in relation to human requirements in buildings and considering aspects related to energy saving. The work is based on the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) guidelines database, which spans across countries and institutions, and aids in taking steps in the direction towards a more uniform guidance for values of indoor parameters. The database is coordinated by the Scientific and Technical Committee (STC) 34, as part of ISIAQ, the International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lars Gunnarsen
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, Denmark
| | - Linda Hägerhed
- Department of Resource Recovery and Building Technology, The University of Borås, Sweden
| | - Henna Maula
- Engineering and Business, Construction Industry, Built Environment Research Group, Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland
| | - Raja Singh
- Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, India, ISAC CBEP, New Delhi & Tathatara Foundation, India
| | - Oluyemi Toyinbo
- Civil Engineering Research Unit, The University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Ulla Haverinen-Shaughnessy
- Civil Engineering Research Unit, The University of Oulu, Finland; Indoor Air Program, The University of Tulsa, USA.
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Yates TA, Karat AS, Bozzani F, McCreesh N, MacGregor H, Beckwith PG, Govender I, Colvin CJ, Kielmann K, Grant AD. Time to change the way we think about tuberculosis infection prevention and control in health facilities: insights from recent research. Antimicrob Steward Healthc Epidemiol 2023; 3:e117. [PMID: 37502244 PMCID: PMC10369445 DOI: 10.1017/ash.2023.192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
In clinical settings where airborne pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, are prevalent, they constitute an important threat to health workers and people accessing healthcare. We report key insights from a 3-year project conducted in primary healthcare clinics in South Africa, alongside other recent tuberculosis infection prevention and control (TB-IPC) research. We discuss the fragmentation of TB-IPC policies and budgets; the characteristics of individuals attending clinics with prevalent pulmonary tuberculosis; clinic congestion and patient flow; clinic design and natural ventilation; and the facility-level determinants of the implementation (or not) of TB-IPC interventions. We present modeling studies that describe the contribution of M. tuberculosis transmission in clinics to the community tuberculosis burden and economic evaluations showing that TB-IPC interventions are highly cost-effective. We argue for a set of changes to TB-IPC, including better coordination of policymaking, clinic decongestion, changes to clinic design and building regulations, and budgeting for enablers to sustain implementation of TB-IPC interventions. Additional research is needed to find the most effective means of improving the implementation of TB-IPC interventions; to develop approaches to screening for prevalent pulmonary tuberculosis that do not rely on symptoms; and to identify groups of patients that can be seen in clinic less frequently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom A. Yates
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, University College London, London, UK
| | - Aaron S. Karat
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- The Institute for Global Health and Development, Queen Margaret University, Musselburgh, UK
| | | | - Nicky McCreesh
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Hayley MacGregor
- The Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Peter G. Beckwith
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
| | - Indira Govender
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
| | - Christopher J. Colvin
- Division of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Karina Kielmann
- The Institute for Global Health and Development, Queen Margaret University, Musselburgh, UK
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alison D. Grant
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, DurbanSouth Africa
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Strydom D, le Roux JD, Craig IK. State estimation for nonlinear state-space transmission models of tuberculosis. Risk Anal 2023; 43:339-357. [PMID: 35165919 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Given the high prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) and the mortality rate associated with the disease, numerous models, such as the Gammaitoni and Nucci (GN) model, were developed to model the risk of transmission. These models typically rely on a quanta generation rate as a measurement of infectivity. Since the quanta generation rate cannot be measured directly, the unique contribution of this work is to develop state estimators to estimate the quanta generation rate from available measurements. To estimate the quanta generation rate, the GN model is adapted into an augmented single-room GN model and a simplified two-room GN model. Both models are shown to be observable, i.e., it is theoretically possible to estimate the quanta generation rate given available measurements. Kalman filters are used to estimate the quanta generation rate. First, a continuous-time extended Kalman filter is used for both adapted models using a simulation and measurement sampling rate of 60 s. Accurate quanta generate rate estimates are achieved in both cases. A more realistic scenario is also considered with a measurement sampling rate of one day. For these estimates, a hybrid extended Kalman filter (HEKF) is used. Accurate quanta generation rate estimates are achieved for the more realistic scenario. Future work could potentially use the HEKFs, the adapted models, and real-time measurements in a control system feedback loop to reduce the transmission of TB in confined spaces such as hospitals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duayne Strydom
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Johan Derik le Roux
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Ian Keith Craig
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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McCreesh N, Mohlamonyane M, Edwards A, Olivier S, Dikgale K, Dayi N, Gareta D, Wood R, Grant AD, White RG, Middelkoop K. Improving Estimates of Social Contact Patterns for Airborne Transmission of Respiratory Pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 2022; 28:2016-2026. [PMID: 36048756 PMCID: PMC9514345 DOI: 10.3201/eid2810.212567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Data on social contact patterns are widely used to parameterize age-mixing matrices in mathematical models of infectious diseases. Most studies focus on close contacts only (i.e., persons spoken with face-to-face). This focus may be appropriate for studies of droplet and short-range aerosol transmission but neglects casual or shared air contacts, who may be at risk from airborne transmission. Using data from 2 provinces in South Africa, we estimated age mixing patterns relevant for droplet transmission, nonsaturating airborne transmission, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission, an airborne infection where saturation of household contacts occurs. Estimated contact patterns by age did not vary greatly between the infection types, indicating that widespread use of close contact data may not be resulting in major inaccuracies. However, contact in persons >50 years of age was lower when we considered casual contacts, and therefore the contribution of older age groups to airborne transmission may be overestimated.
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Deol AK, Shaikh N, Middelkoop K, Mohlamonyane M, White RG, McCreesh N. Importance of ventilation and occupancy to Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission rates in congregate settings. BMC Public Health 2022; 22:1772. [PMID: 36123653 PMCID: PMC9483862 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-022-14133-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ventilation rates are a key determinant of the transmission rate of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other airborne infections. Targeting infection prevention and control (IPC) interventions at locations where ventilation rates are low and occupancy high could be a highly effective intervention strategy. Despite this, few data are available on ventilation rates and occupancy in congregate locations in high tuberculosis burden settings. METHODS We collected carbon dioxide concentration and occupancy data in congregate locations and public transport on 88 occasions, in Cape Town, South Africa. For each location, we estimated ventilation rates and the relative rate of infection, accounting for ventilation rates and occupancy. RESULTS We show that the estimated potential transmission rate in congregate settings and public transport varies greatly between different settings. Overall, in the community we studied, estimated infection risk was higher in minibus taxis and trains than in salons, bars, and shops. Despite good levels of ventilation, infection risk could be high in the clinic due to high occupancy levels. CONCLUSION Public transport in particular may be promising targets for infection prevention and control interventions in this setting, both to reduce Mtb transmission, but also to reduce the transmission of other airborne pathogens such as measles and SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. K. Deol
- grid.8991.90000 0004 0425 469XDepartment of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - N. Shaikh
- grid.8991.90000 0004 0425 469XDepartment of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - K. Middelkoop
- grid.7836.a0000 0004 1937 1151The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - M. Mohlamonyane
- grid.7836.a0000 0004 1937 1151The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - R. G. White
- grid.8991.90000 0004 0425 469XDepartment of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - N. McCreesh
- grid.8991.90000 0004 0425 469XDepartment of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Singh R. Studying the Double Paradox in Air Conditioning at Indian Airports for Airborne Infection Prevention and Filtration of Harmful Suspended Particulate Matter. Cureus 2022; 14:e23748. [PMID: 35509738 PMCID: PMC9058289 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.23748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Zürcher K, Riou J, Morrow C, Ballif M, Koch A, Bertschinger S, Warner DF, Middelkoop K, Wood R, Egger M, Fenner L. Estimating Tuberculosis Transmission Risks in a Primary Care Clinic in South Africa: Modeling of Environmental and Clinical Data. J Infect Dis 2022; 225:1642-1652. [PMID: 35039860 PMCID: PMC9071349 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiab534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Congregate settings, such as healthcare clinics, may play an essential role in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) transmission. Using patient and environmental data, we studied transmission at a primary care clinic in South Africa. METHODS We collected patient movements, cough frequency, and clinical data, and measured indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, relative humidity, and Mtb genomes in the air. We used negative binomial regression model to investigate associations. RESULTS We analyzed 978 unique patients who contributed 14 795 data points. The median patient age was 33 (interquartile range [IQR], 26-41) years, and 757 (77.4%) were female. Overall, median CO2 levels were 564 (IQR 495-646) parts per million and were highest in the morning. Median number of coughs per day was 466 (IQR, 368-503), and overall median Mtb DNA copies/μL/day was 4.2 (IQR, 1.2-9.5). We found an increased presence of Mtb DNA in the air of 32% (95% credible interval, 7%-63%) per 100 additional young adults (aged 15-29 years) and 1% (0-2%) more Mtb DNA per 10% increase of relative humidity. Estimated cumulative transmission risks for patients attending the clinic monthly for at least 1 hour range between 9% and 29%. CONCLUSIONS We identified young adults and relative humidity as potentially important factors for transmission risks in healthcare clinics. Our approach should be used to detect transmission and evaluate infection control interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Zürcher
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Julien Riou
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Carl Morrow
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa,Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Marie Ballif
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anastasia Koch
- South African Medical Research Council/National Health Laboratory Service/University of Cape Town Molecular Mycobacteriology Research Unit and Department of Science and Innovation/National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Simon Bertschinger
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland,Institute for Medical Informatics, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Digby F Warner
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa,South African Medical Research Council/National Health Laboratory Service/University of Cape Town Molecular Mycobacteriology Research Unit and Department of Science and Innovation/National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Keren Middelkoop
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa,Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robin Wood
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa,Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Matthias Egger
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland,Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa,Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Lukas Fenner
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland,Correspondence: Lukas Fenner, MD, MSc, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern (ISPM), Mittelstrasse 43, 3012 Bern, Switzerland ()
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Beckwith PG, Karat AS, Govender I, Deol AK, McCreesh N, Kielmann K, Baisley K, Grant AD, Yates TA. Direct estimates of absolute ventilation and estimated Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission risk in clinics in South Africa. PLOS Glob Public Health 2022; 2:e0000603. [PMID: 36962521 PMCID: PMC10021606 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Healthcare facilities are important sites for the transmission of pathogens spread via bioaerosols, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Natural ventilation can play an important role in reducing this transmission. We aimed to measure rates of natural ventilation in clinics in KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape provinces, South Africa, then use these measurements to estimate Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission risk. We measured ventilation in clinic spaces using a tracer-gas release method. In spaces where this was not possible, we estimated ventilation using data on indoor and outdoor carbon dioxide levels. Ventilation was measured i) under usual conditions and ii) with all windows and doors fully open. Under various assumptions about infectiousness and duration of exposure, measured absolute ventilation rates were related to risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission using the Wells-Riley Equation. In 2019, we obtained ventilation measurements in 33 clinical spaces in 10 clinics: 13 consultation rooms, 16 waiting areas and 4 other clinical spaces. Under usual conditions, the absolute ventilation rate was much higher in waiting rooms (median 1769 m3/hr, range 338-4815 m3/hr) than in consultation rooms (median 197 m3/hr, range 0-1451 m3/hr). When compared with usual conditions, fully opening existing doors and windows resulted in a median two-fold increase in ventilation. Using standard assumptions about infectiousness, we estimated that a health worker would have a 24.8% annual risk of becoming infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and that a patient would have an 0.1% risk of becoming infected per visit. Opening existing doors and windows and rearranging patient pathways to preferentially use better ventilated clinic spaces result in important reductions in Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission risk. However, unless combined with other tuberculosis infection prevention and control interventions, these changes are insufficient to reduce risk to health workers, and other highly exposed individuals, to acceptable levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Beckwith
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron S Karat
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- The Institute for Global Health and Development, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Indira Govender
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Africa Health Research Institute, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Arminder K Deol
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicky McCreesh
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Karina Kielmann
- The Institute for Global Health and Development, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Kathy Baisley
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alison D Grant
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Africa Health Research Institute, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Tom A Yates
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Deol AK, Scarponi D, Beckwith P, Yates TA, Karat AS, Yan AWC, Baisley KS, Grant AD, White RG, McCreesh N. Estimating ventilation rates in rooms with varying occupancy levels: Relevance for reducing transmission risk of airborne pathogens. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253096. [PMID: 34166388 PMCID: PMC8224849 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In light of the role that airborne transmission plays in the spread of SARS-CoV-2, as well as the ongoing high global mortality from well-known airborne diseases such as tuberculosis and measles, there is an urgent need for practical ways of identifying congregate spaces where low ventilation levels contribute to high transmission risk. Poorly ventilated clinic spaces in particular may be high risk, due to the presence of both infectious and susceptible people. While relatively simple approaches to estimating ventilation rates exist, the approaches most frequently used in epidemiology cannot be used where occupancy varies, and so cannot be reliably applied in many of the types of spaces where they are most needed. METHODS The aim of this study was to demonstrate the use of a non-steady state method to estimate the absolute ventilation rate, which can be applied in rooms where occupancy levels vary. We used data from a room in a primary healthcare clinic in a high TB and HIV prevalence setting, comprising indoor and outdoor carbon dioxide measurements and head counts (by age), taken over time. Two approaches were compared: approach 1 using a simple linear regression model and approach 2 using an ordinary differential equation model. RESULTS The absolute ventilation rate, Q, using approach 1 was 2407 l/s [95% CI: 1632-3181] and Q from approach 2 was 2743 l/s [95% CI: 2139-4429]. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate two methods that can be used to estimate ventilation rate in busy congregate settings, such as clinic waiting rooms. Both approaches produced comparable results, however the simple linear regression method has the advantage of not requiring room volume measurements. These methods can be used to identify poorly-ventilated spaces, allowing measures to be taken to reduce the airborne transmission of pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, measles, and SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arminder K. Deol
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, TB Centre, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Danny Scarponi
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, TB Centre, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Beckwith
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- The Institute for Global Health and Development, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Tom A. Yates
- Department of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron S. Karat
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, TB Centre, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- The Institute for Global Health and Development, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ada W. C. Yan
- Section of Immunology of Infection, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kathy S. Baisley
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alison D. Grant
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, TB Centre, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Africa Health Research Institute, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Richard G. White
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, TB Centre, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicky McCreesh
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, TB Centre, The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Tibbetts KK, Ottoson RA, Tsukayama DT. Public Health Response to Tuberculosis Outbreak among Persons Experiencing Homelessness, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, 2017-2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:420-426. [PMID: 32091365 PMCID: PMC7045824 DOI: 10.3201/eid2603.190643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a greater risk for populations experiencing homelessness. When a TB exposure occurs in a homeless shelter, evaluation of contacts is both urgent and challenging. In 2017, local public health workers initiated a response to a TB outbreak in homeless shelters in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. In this contact investigation, we incorporated multiple techniques to identify, evaluate, and manage patients, including the concentric-circle method to characterize amount of contact, identifying the most frequent sites of sporadic medical care, using electronic medical records, and engaging with medical providers treating this population. Of 298 contacts evaluated, 41 (14%) had latent TB infection and 2 had active TB disease. Our analysis indicated a significant relationship between duration of exposure and positive TB test result (p = 0.001). We encourage local public health departments to expand beyond traditional contact tracing techniques by leveraging partnerships and existing systems to reach contacts exposed in shelters.
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Du C, Wang S, Yu M, Chiu T, Wang J, Chuang P, Jou R, Chan P, Fang C. Effect of ventilation improvement during a tuberculosis outbreak in underventilated university buildings. Indoor Air 2020; 30:422-432. [PMID: 31883403 PMCID: PMC7217216 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The role of ventilation in preventing tuberculosis (TB) transmission has been widely proposed in infection control guidance. However, conclusive evidence is lacking. Modeling suggested the threshold of ventilation rate to reduce effective reproductive ratio (ratio between new secondary infectious cases and source cases) of TB to below 1 is corresponding to a carbon dioxide (CO2 ) level of 1000 parts per million (ppm). Here, we measured the effect of improving ventilation rate on a TB outbreak involving 27 TB cases and 1665 contacts in underventilated university buildings. Ventilation engineering decreased the maximum CO2 levels from 3204 ± 50 ppm to 591-603 ppm. Thereafter, the secondary attack rate of new contacts in university dropped to zero (mean follow-up duration: 5.9 years). Exposure to source TB cases under CO2 >1000 ppm indoor environment was a significant risk factor for contacts to become new infectious TB cases (P < .001). After adjusting for effects of contact investigation and latent TB infection treatment, improving ventilation rate to levels with CO2 <1000 ppm was independently associated with a 97% decrease (95% CI: 50%-99.9%) in the incidence of TB among contacts. These results show that maintaining adequate indoor ventilation could be a highly effective strategy for controlling TB outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun‐Ru Du
- Taipei Regional CenterTaiwan Centers for Disease ControlTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Shun‐Chih Wang
- Institute of LaborOccupational Safety and HealthMinistry of LaborTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Ming‐Chih Yu
- Division of Pulmonary MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineWan Fang HospitalTaipei Medical UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
- School of Respiratory TherapyCollege of MedicineTaipei Medical UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Ting‐Fang Chiu
- Department of PediatricsTaipei City Hospital, Zhongxiao BranchTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Jann‐Yuan Wang
- Department of Internal MedicineNational Taiwan University HospitalTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Pei‐Chun Chuang
- Division of Planning and CoordinationTaiwan Centers for Disease ControlTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Ruwen Jou
- Center for Diagnostics and Vaccine DevelopmentTaiwan Centers for Disease ControlTaipeiTaiwan
- Institute of Microbiology and ImmunologyNational Yang‐Ming UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Pei‐Chun Chan
- Division of Chronic Infectious DiseasesTaiwan Centers for Disease ControlTaipeiTaiwan
- Division of Pediatric Infectious DiseasesDepartment of PediatricsNational Taiwan University HospitalTaipeiTaiwan
- Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive MedicineCollege of Public HealthNational Taiwan UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chi‐Tai Fang
- Department of Internal MedicineNational Taiwan University HospitalTaipeiTaiwan
- Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive MedicineCollege of Public HealthNational Taiwan UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
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Toyinbo O, Phipatanakul W, Shaughnessy R, Haverinen-Shaughnessy U. Building and indoor environmental quality assessment of Nigerian primary schools: A pilot study. Indoor Air 2019; 29:510-520. [PMID: 30807666 PMCID: PMC6486416 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A total of 15 classrooms went through on-site assessments/inspections, including measurements of temperature (T), and concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ). In addition, the level of surface biocontamination/cleaning effectiveness was assessed by measuring adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels on students' desks. Based on the data, the quality of facilities in the buildings was low. Classroom occupancy exceeded ASHRAE 50 person/100 m2 standard in all cases indicating overcrowding. However, concentrations of CO2 remained below 1000 ppm in most classrooms. On the other hand, indoor T was above the recommended levels for thermal comfort in all classrooms. Maximum indoor CO was 6 ppm. Median ATP concentrations on the desk tops were moderately high in all schools. The use of open incinerators and power generator sets near classrooms, which was suspected to be the main source of CO, should be discouraged. Improved hygiene could be achieved by providing the students access to functioning bathroom facilities and cafeteria, and by effective cleaning of high contact surfaces such as desks. Although ventilation seems adequate based on CO2 concentrations, thermal comfort was not attained especially in the afternoon during extreme sunlight. Therefore, installing passive and/or mechanical cooling systems should be considered in this regard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluyemi Toyinbo
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio FI-70701, Finland
- University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, Kuopio 70211, Finland
| | - Wanda Phipatanakul
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School
| | | | - Ulla Haverinen-Shaughnessy
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio FI-70701, Finland
- Indoor Air Program, the University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
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Khan PY, Yates TA, Osman M, Warren RM, van der Heijden Y, Padayatchi N, Nardell EA, Moore D, Mathema B, Gandhi N, Eldholm V, Dheda K, Hesseling AC, Mizrahi V, Rustomjee R, Pym A. Transmission of drug-resistant tuberculosis in HIV-endemic settings. Lancet Infect Dis 2019; 19:e77-88. [PMID: 30554996 DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30537-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The emergence and expansion of the multidrug-resistant tuberculosis epidemic is a threat to the global control of tuberculosis. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is the result of the selection of resistance-conferring mutations during inadequate antituberculosis treatment. However, HIV has a profound effect on the natural history of tuberculosis, manifesting in an increased rate of disease progression, leading to increased transmission and amplification of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Interventions specific to HIV-endemic areas are urgently needed to block tuberculosis transmission. These interventions should include a combination of rapid molecular diagnostics and improved chemotherapy to shorten the duration of infectiousness, implementation of infection control measures, and active screening of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis contacts, with prophylactic regimens for individuals without evidence of disease. Development and improvement of the efficacy of interventions will require a greater understanding of the factors affecting the transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in HIV-endemic settings, including population-based molecular epidemiology studies. In this Series article, we review what we know about the transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in settings with high burdens of HIV and define the research priorities required to develop more effective interventions, to diminish ongoing transmission and the amplification of drug resistance.
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Auld SC, Shah NS, Cohen T, Martinson NA, Gandhi NR. Where is tuberculosis transmission happening? Insights from the literature, new tools to study transmission and implications for the elimination of tuberculosis. Respirology 2018; 23:10.1111/resp.13333. [PMID: 29869818 PMCID: PMC6281783 DOI: 10.1111/resp.13333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
More than 10 million new cases of tuberculosis (TB) are diagnosed worldwide each year. The majority of these cases occur in low- and middle-income countries where the TB epidemic is predominantly driven by transmission. Efforts to 'end TB' will depend upon our ability to halt ongoing transmission. However, recent studies of new approaches to interrupt transmission have demonstrated inconsistent effects on reducing population-level TB incidence. TB transmission occurs across a wide range of settings, that include households and hospitals, but also community-based settings. While home-based contact investigations and infection control programmes in hospitals and clinics have a successful track record as TB control activities, there is a gap in our knowledge of where, and between whom, community-based transmission of TB occurs. Novel tools, including molecular epidemiology, geospatial analyses and ventilation studies, provide hope for improving our understanding of transmission in countries where the burden of TB is greatest. By integrating these diverse and innovative tools, we can enhance our ability to identify transmission events by documenting the opportunity for transmission-through either an epidemiologic or geospatial connection-alongside genomic evidence for transmission, based upon genetically similar TB strains. A greater understanding of locations and patterns of transmission will translate into meaningful improvements in our current TB control activities by informing targeted, evidence-based public health interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara C Auld
- Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - N Sarita Shah
- Department of Epidemiology, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Division of Global HIV and TB, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ted Cohen
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Neil A Martinson
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Center for TB Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Neel R Gandhi
- Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Global Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Brouwer M, Katamba A, Katabira ET, van Leth F. An easy tool to assess ventilation in health facilities as part of air-borne transmission prevention: a cross-sectional survey from Uganda. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17:325. [PMID: 28468649 PMCID: PMC5415815 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-017-2425-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND No guidelines exist on assessing ventilation through air changes per hour (ACH) using a vaneometer. The objective of the study was to evaluate the position and frequency for measuring air velocity using a vaneometer to assess ventilation with ACH; and to assess influence of ambient temperature and weather on ACH. METHODS Cross-sectional survey in six urban health facilities in Kampala, Uganda. Measurements consisted of taking air velocity on nine separate moments in five positions in each opening of the TB clinic, laboratory, outpatient consultation and outpatient waiting room using a vaneometer. We assessed in addition the ventilation with the "20% rule", and compared this estimation with the ventilation in ACH assessed using the vaneometer. RESULTS A total of 189 measurements showed no influence on air velocity of the position and moment of the measurement. No significant influence existed of ambient temperature and a small but significant influence of sunny weather. Ventilation was adequate in 17/24 (71%) of all measurements. Using the "20% rule", ventilation was adequate in 50% of rooms assessed. Agreement between both methods existed in 13/23 (56%) of the rooms assessed. CONCLUSION Most rooms had adequate ventilation when assessed using a vaneometer for measuring air velocity. A single vaneometer measurement of air velocity is adequate to assess ventilation in this setting. These findings provide practical input for clear guidelines on assessing ventilation using a vaneometer. Assessing ventilation with a vaneometer differs substantially from applying the "20% rule".
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Brouwer
- PHTB Consult, Lovensestraat 79, 5014 DN Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Achilles Katamba
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Makerere University, College of Health Sciences, P.O. Box 21696, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Elly Tebasoboke Katabira
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Makerere University, College of Health Sciences, P.O. Box 21696, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Frank van Leth
- Amsterdam Institute of Global Health and Development, Pietersbergweg 17, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Patterson B, Morrow CD, Kohls D, Deignan C, Ginsburg S, Wood R. Mapping sites of high TB transmission risk: Integrating the shared air and social behaviour of TB cases and adolescents in a South African township. Sci Total Environ 2017; 583:97-103. [PMID: 28109661 PMCID: PMC5312671 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tuberculosis remains a major public health problem in poverty-stricken areas of the world. Communal gathering places account for the majority of TB transmission in high burden settings. OBJECTIVE To investigate the social behaviour patterns of individuals who have developed TB disease and adolescents at risk of infection. To develop a cheap and effective method to locate transmission hot spots in high burden communities. DESIGN Portable, combined CO2/GIS monitors and location diaries were given to individuals from a South African township. The three groups: newly diagnosed TB patients, recently treated TB patients and adolescents recorded their activities over a median of two days. Rebreathed air volumes (RAVs) at all GIS locations were calculated from CO2 levels using the Rudnick-Milton variant of the Wells-Riley TB transmission model. Hot spot analysis was performed to determine the communal buildings which correspond to spatially clustered high RAVs. RESULTS Analysis of diaries found that the adolescent group spent greater time in congregate settings compared with the other two groups driven by time spent in school/work (new TB: 1%, recent TB: 8%, and adolescents: 23%). Adolescents also changed their location more frequently (9.0, 6.0, 14.3 changes per day; p<0.001). The RAVs reflected this divergence between the groups (44, 40, 127l; p<0.001). Communal buildings associated with high RAVs were found to be a clinic, two schools and a library. Hot spot analysis revealed the most intense clustering of high RAVs at a community school. CONCLUSION Our study demonstrates a new methodology to uncover TB transmission hot spots using a technique that avoids the need to pre-select locations. Investigation of a South African township highlighted the high risk potential of schools and high risk social behaviour of adolescents. Consequently the targeting of transmission reduction strategies to schools may prove highly efficacious in high burden settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Patterson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA; Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, IDM, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Carl D Morrow
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine (IDM), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, IDM, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Daniel Kohls
- Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, IDM, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Caroline Deignan
- Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, IDM, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Samuel Ginsburg
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & the Built Environment, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robin Wood
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine (IDM), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, IDM, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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