Oxidative Stress-Induced Overactivation of Frog Eggs Triggers Calcium-Dependent Non-Apoptotic Cell Death

Excessive activation of frog eggs (overactivation) is a pathological process that renders eggs unfertilizable. Its physiological inducers are unknown. Previously, oxidative stress was shown to cause time- and dose-dependent overactivation of Xenopus laevis frog eggs. Here, we demonstrate that the oxidative stress-induced egg overactivation is a calcium-dependent phenomenon which can be attenuated in the presence of the selective calcium chelator BAPTA. Degradation of cyclin B2, which is known to be initiated by calcium transient in fertilized or parthenogenetically activated eggs, can also be observed in the overactivated eggs. Decline in mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP depletion and termination of protein synthesis manifest in the eggs within one hour of triggering overactivation. These intracellular events occur in the absence of caspase activation. Furthermore, plasma membrane integrity is compromised in the overactivated eggs, as evidenced by ATP leakage and egg swelling. In sum, our data demonstrate that oxidative stress-induced overactivation of frog eggs causes fast and dramatic disruption of cellular homeostasis, resulting in robust and expedited cell death by a calcium-dependent non-apoptotic mechanism.

Protein pI and Intracellular Localization

The protein isoelectric point (pI) can be calculated from an amino acid sequence using computational analysis in a good agreement with experimental data. Availability of whole-genome sequences empowers comparative studies of proteome-wide pI distributions. It was found that the whole-proteome distributions of protein pI values are multimodal in different species. It was further hypothesized that the observed multimodality is associated with subcellular localization-specific differences in local pI distributions. Here, we overview the multimodality of proteome-wide pI distributions in different organisms focusing on the relationships between protein pI and subcellular localization. We also discuss the probable factors responsible for variation of the intracellular localization-specific pI profiles.

Dissection of the Ovulatory Process Using ex vivo Approaches

Ovulation is a unique physiological phenomenon that is essential for sexual reproduction. It refers to the entire process of ovarian follicle responses to hormonal stimulation resulting in the release of mature fertilization-competent oocytes from the follicles and ovaries. Remarkably, ovulation in different species can be reproduced out-of-body with high fidelity. Moreover, most of the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways engaged in this process have been delineated using in vitro ovulation models. Here, we provide an overview of the major molecular and cytological events of ovulation observed in frogs, primarily in the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis, using mainly ex vivo approaches, with the focus on meiotic oocyte maturation and follicle rupture. For the purpose of comparison and generalization, we also refer extensively to ovulation in other biological species, most notoriously, in mammals.

Toward the understanding of biology of oocyte life cycle in Xenopus Laevis: No oocytes left behind

BACKGROUND

For the past more than 25 years, we have been focusing on the developmental and reproductive biology of the female gametes, oocytes, and eggs, of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis.

METHODS

The events associated with the life cycle of these cells can be classified into the four main categories: first, oogenesis and cell growth in the ovary during the first meiotic arrest; second, maturation and ovulation that occur simultaneously and result in the acquisition of fertilization competence and the second meiotic arrest; third, fertilization, that is sperm-induced transition from egg to zygote; and fourth, egg death after spontaneous activation in the absence of fertilizing sperm.

MAIN FINDINGS

Our studies have demonstrated that signal transduction system involving tyrosine kinase Src and other oocyte/egg membrane-associated molecules such as uroplakin III and some other cytoplasmic proteins such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) play important roles for successful ovulation, maturation, fertilization, and initiation of embryonic development.

CONCLUSION

We summarize recent advances in understanding cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying life cycle events of the oocytes and eggs. Our further intention is to discuss and predict potentially promising impact of the recent findings on the challenges facing reproductive biology and medicine, as well as societal contexts.

Autophosphorylation of MAP kinase disables the MAPK pathway in apoptotic Xenopus eggs

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are involved in the regulation of various cellular processes, including cell survival and apoptosis. Here, we report that Xenopus p42 MAPK becomes phosphorylated in apoptotic eggs, however this modification does not activate the enzyme. Using phosphorylation residue-specific antibodies, we demonstrate that this modification occurs on the Tyr residue in the MAPK activation segment, pinpointing the autophosphorylation mechanism. Notably, MAPK phosphorylation in apoptotic Xenopus eggs coincides with prominent intracellular acidification accompanying apoptosis in these cells. Furthermore, autophosphorylation of recombinant Xenopus MAPK is stimulated and phosphorylation of a protein substrate is inhibited under low pH conditions. Thus, acidic intracellular conditions inactivate MAPK and effectively disable the MAPK-mediated survival pathway in the apoptotic eggs. Given that cell acidification is a rather common feature of apoptosis, we hypothesize that stimulation of MAPK autophosphorylation and shutdown of the MAPK pathway may represent universal traits of apoptotic cell death.

Activity and intracellular localization of senescence-associated β-galactosidase in aging Xenopus oocytes and eggs

Senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) serves as a marker of senescence in aging somatic cells. However, little is known about SA-β-gal dynamics in aging gamete cells. To address this issue, here we investigated activity and intracellular localization of SA-β-gal in freshly obtained and aging oocytes and eggs of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis. Data base mining revealed the presence of several homologous β-galactosidase sequences in the annotated Xenopus genome. Some of them were predicted to contain an N-terminal signal peptide sequence, suggesting enzyme translocation to cellular organelles. Biochemical and microscopic analyses confirmed SA-β-gal localization in the particulate and cytosolic fractions of oocytes and eggs. SA-β-gal activity was found to reside predominantly within a fraction of dense cytoplasmic granules that were extensively stained with the lysosome-specific dye LysoTracker Green DND-26 and had an average size of 8.9 ± 5.6 μm. These features identify the SA-β-gal-containing granules as a subpopulation of yolk platelets, specialized late endosomes or lysosomes that accumulate and store processed protein in frog oocytes. Further analysis revealed an increase of SA-β-gal activity in Xenopus eggs, but not in oocytes, aged in vitro over 48 h. Our data suggest that endosomal acidification during egg aging may be responsible for this increase.

Membrane Microdomains as Platform to Study Membrane-Associated Events During Oogenesis, Meiotic Maturation, and Fertilization in Xenopus laevis

Studies on the egg plasma membrane-associated tyrosine kinase Src have shed light on the identity of the molecular machinery that is responsible for gamete interaction and possibly fusion in African clawed frog Xenopus laevis. Here we describe our protocol for identifying and analyzing molecular and cellular machinery that contributes to a variety of biological processes in the course of oogenesis, oocyte maturation, egg fertilization, and early embryogenesis in Xenopus. Our current special interest is to evaluate the hypothesis that the oocyte/egg membrane microdomain (MD)-associated uroplakin III-Src system is responsible for mediating sperm-egg membrane interaction/fusion signal to the oocyte/egg cytoplasm to initiate embryonic and zygotic development in this species. Therefore, this chapter contains a brief introduction to biology of oocytes and eggs in Xenopus and addresses the following questions: (1) What is oocyte/egg MD? (2) Why do we study oocyte/egg MD? (3) How to manipulate oocyte/egg MD? (4) What has been achieved by oocyte/egg MD studies? (5) What are the next steps in oocyte/egg MD studies?

Postovulatory cell death: why eggs die via apoptosis in biological species with external fertilization

Spawned unfertilized eggs have been found to die by apoptosis in several species with external fertilization. However, there is no necessity for the externally laid eggs to degrade via this process, as apoptosis evolved as a mechanism to reduce the damaging effects of individual cell death on the whole organism. The recent observation of egg degradation in the genital tracts of some oviparous species provides a clue as to the physiological relevance of egg apoptosis in these animals. We hypothesize that egg apoptosis accompanies ovulation in species with external fertilization as a normal process to eliminate mature eggs retained in the genital tract after ovulation. Furthermore, apoptosis universally develops in ovulated eggs after spontaneous activation in the absence of fertilization. This paper provides an overview of egg apoptosis in several oviparous biological species, including frog, fish, sea urchin, and starfish.

Global decay of mRNA is a hallmark of apoptosis in aging Xenopus eggs

Cytoplasmic mRNAs are specifically degraded in somatic cells as a part of early apoptotic response. However, no reports have been presented so far concerning mRNA fate in apoptotic gametes. In the present study, we analyzed the content of various cytoplasmic mRNAs in aging oocytes and eggs of the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. To circumvent large gene expression variation among the individual oocytes and eggs, single-cell monitoring of transcript levels has been implemented, using multiple cytoplasmic collections and reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR. It was found that numerous cytoplasmic mRNAs, coding for proteins classified in different functional types, are robustly degraded in apoptotic Xenopus eggs, but not in aging oocytes. mRNA degradation becomes evident in the eggs after meiotic exit at the time of cytochrome c release. A strong correlation between the length of PCR amplicon and specific transcript content was observed, suggesting endonucleolytic cleavage of mRNA. In addition, it was found that mRNA deadenylation also contributes to apoptotic mRNA degradation. Altogether, these findings indicate that the global decay of mRNA represents a hallmark of apoptosis in aging Xenopus eggs. To our knowledge, this is the first description of mRNA degradation in apoptotic gamete cells.

Content of intrinsic disorder influences the outcome of cell-free protein synthesis

Cell-free protein synthesis is used to produce proteins with various structural traits. Recent bioinformatics analyses indicate that more than half of eukaryotic proteins possess long intrinsically disordered regions. However, no systematic study concerning the connection between intrinsic disorder and expression success of cell-free protein synthesis has been presented until now. To address this issue, we examined correlations of the experimentally observed cell-free protein expression yields with the contents of intrinsic disorder bioinformatically predicted in the expressed sequences. This analysis revealed strong relationships between intrinsic disorder and protein amenability to heterologous cell-free expression. On the one hand, elevated disorder content was associated with the increased ratio of soluble expression. On the other hand, overall propensity for detectable protein expression decreased with disorder content. We further demonstrated that these tendencies are rooted in some distinct features of intrinsically disordered regions, such as low hydrophobicity, elevated surface accessibility and high abundance of sequence motifs for proteolytic degradation, including sites of ubiquitination and PEST sequences. Our findings suggest that identification of intrinsically disordered regions in the expressed amino acid sequences can be of practical use for predicting expression success and optimizing cell-free protein synthesis.

Organization of the multiaminoacyl-tRNA synthetase complex and the cotranslational protein folding

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (ARSs) play an essential role in the protein synthesis by catalyzing an attachment of their cognate amino acids to tRNAs. Unlike their prokaryotic counterparts, ARSs in higher eukaryotes form a multiaminoacyl-tRNA synthetase complex (MARS), consisting of the subset of ARS polypeptides and three auxiliary proteins. The intriguing feature of MARS complex is the presence of only nine out of twenty ARSs, specific for Arg, Asp, Gln, Glu, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, and Pro, regardless of the organism, cell, or tissue types. Although existence of MARSs complex in higher eukaryotes has been already known for more than four decades, its functional significance remains elusive. We found that seven of the nine corresponding amino acids (Arg, Gln, Glu, Ile, Leu, Lys, and Met) together with Ala form a predictor of the protein α-helicity. Remarkably, all amino acids (besides Ala) in the predictor have the highest possible number of side-chain rotamers. Therefore, compositional bias of a typical α-helix can contribute to the helix's stability by increasing the entropy of the folded state. It also appears that position-specific α-helical propensity, specifically periodic alternation of charged and hydrophobic residues in the helices, may well be provided by the structural organization of the complex. Considering characteristics of MARS complex from the perspective of the α-helicity, we hypothesize that specific composition and structure of the complex represents a functional mechanism for coordination of translation with the fast and correct folding of amphiphilic α-helices.

Identification of multiple physicochemical and structural properties associated with soluble expression of eukaryotic proteins in cell-free bacterial extracts

Bacterial extracts are widely used to synthesize recombinant proteins. Vast data volumes have been accumulated in cell-free expression databases, covering a whole range of existing proteins. It makes possible comprehensive bioinformatics analysis and identification of multiple features associated with protein solubility and aggregation. In the present paper, an approach to identify the multiple physicochemical and structural properties of amino acid sequences associated with soluble expression of eukaryotic proteins in cell-free bacterial extracts is presented. The method includes: (1) categorical assessment of expression data; (2) calculation and prediction of multiple properties of expressed sequences; (3) correlation of the individual properties with the expression scores; and (4) evaluation of statistical significance of the observed correlations. Using this method, a number of significant correlations between calculated and predicted properties of amino acid sequences and their propensity for soluble cell-free expression have been revealed.

Correlations between predicted protein disorder and post-translational modifications in plants

MOTIVATION

Protein structural research in plants lags behind that in animal and bacterial species. This lag concerns both the structural analysis of individual proteins and the proteome-wide characterization of structure-related properties. Until now, no systematic study concerning the relationships between protein disorder and multiple post-translational modifications (PTMs) in plants has been presented.

RESULTS

In this work, we calculated the global degree of intrinsic disorder in the complete proteomes of eight typical monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant species. We further predicted multiple sites for phosphorylation, glycosylation, acetylation and methylation and examined the correlations of protein disorder with the presence of the predicted PTM sites. It was found that phosphorylation, acetylation and O-glycosylation displayed a clear preference for occurrence in disordered regions of plant proteins. In contrast, methylation tended to avoid disordered sequence, whereas N-glycosylation did not show a universal structural preference in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. In addition, the analysis performed revealed significant differences between the integral characteristics of monocot and dicot proteomes. They included elevated disorder degree, increased rate of O-glycosylation and R-methylation, decreased rate of N-glycosylation, K-acetylation and K-methylation in monocotyledonous plant species, as compared with dicotyledonous species. Altogether, our study provides the most compelling evidence so far for the connection between protein disorder and multiple PTMs in plants.

CONTACT

tokmak@phoenix.kobe-u.ac.jp or tetsuya.sakurai@riken.jp Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Bioinformatics analysis and optimization of cell-free protein synthesis

Cell-free protein synthesis offers substantial advantages over cell-based expression, allowing direct access to the protein synthetic reaction and meticulous control over the reaction conditions. Recently, we identified a number of statistically significant correlations between calculated and predicted properties of amino acid sequences and their amenability to heterologous cell-free expression. These correlations can be of practical use for predicting expression success and optimizing cell-free protein synthesis. In this chapter, we describe our approach and demonstrate how computational and predictive bioinformatics can be used to analyze and optimize cell-free protein expression.

Monitoring gene expression in a single Xenopus oocyte using multiple cytoplasmic collections and quantitative RT-PCR

Oocytes and eggs of the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, are commonly used in gene expression studies. However, monitoring transcript levels in the individual living oocytes remains challenging. To address this challenge, we used a technique based on multiple repeated collections of nanoliter volumes of cytoplasmic material from a single oocyte. Transcript quantification was performed by quantitative RT-PCR. The technique allowed monitoring of heterologous gene expression in a single oocyte without affecting its viability. We also used this approach to profile the expression of endogenous genes in living Xenopus oocytes. Although frog oocytes are traditionally viewed as a homogenous cell population, a significant degree of gene expression variation was observed among the individual oocytes. A lognormal distribution of transcript levels was revealed in the oocyte population. Finally, using this technique, we observed a dramatic decrease in the content of various cytoplasmic mRNAs in aging unfertilized eggs but not in oocytes, suggesting a link between mRNA degradation and egg apoptosis.

Unlaid Xenopus eggs degrade by apoptosis in the genital tract

Background

In several species with external fertilization, including frogs, laid unfertilized eggs were found to die by apoptosis outside of the animal body. However, there is no apparent reason for the externally laid eggs to degrade by this process, considering that apoptosis developed as a mechanism to reduce the damaging effect of individual cell death to the whole organism.

Results

Here, we demonstrate that a number of eggs are retained in the genital tract of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis after gonadotropin-induced ovulation. The majority of these eggs exit meiotic arrest within 24 hours of hormone administration. Subsequently, post-meiotic eggs die in the frog genital tract by a well-defined apoptotic process. The hallmarks of egg degradation include prominent morphological changes, cytochrome c release, caspase activation, increase in ADP/ATP ratio, progressive intracellular acidification, egg swelling and all-out proteolysis of egg proteins. The sustained presence of post-apoptotic eggs in the genital tract of ageing frogs evidenced age-associated worsening of apoptotic clearance.

Conclusions

The direct observation of egg degradation in the Xenopus genital tract provides a clue to the physiological relevance of frog egg apoptosis. It works to eliminate the mature unlaid eggs retained in the animal body after ovulation. Our findings establish egg apoptosis as a major physiological process accompanying ovulation in frogs.

Multiple post-translational modifications affect heterologous protein synthesis

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are required for proper folding of many proteins. The low capacity for PTMs hinders the production of heterologous proteins in the widely used prokaryotic systems of protein synthesis. Until now, a systematic and comprehensive study concerning the specific effects of individual PTMs on heterologous protein synthesis has not been presented. To address this issue, we expressed 1488 human proteins and their domains in a bacterial cell-free system, and we examined the correlation of the expression yields with the presence of multiple PTM sites bioinformatically predicted in these proteins. This approach revealed a number of previously unknown statistically significant correlations. Prediction of some PTMs, such as myristoylation, glycosylation, palmitoylation, and disulfide bond formation, was found to significantly worsen protein amenability to soluble expression. The presence of other PTMs, such as aspartyl hydroxylation, C-terminal amidation, and Tyr sulfation, did not correlate with the yield of heterologous protein expression. Surprisingly, the predicted presence of several PTMs, such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, and prenylation, was associated with the increased production of properly folded soluble proteins. The plausible rationales for the existence of the observed correlations are presented. Our findings suggest that identification of potential PTMs in polypeptide sequences can be of practical use for predicting expression success and optimizing heterologous protein synthesis. In sum, this study provides the most compelling evidence so far for the role of multiple PTMs in the stability and solubility of heterologously expressed recombinant proteins.

Unfertilized frog eggs die by apoptosis following meiotic exit

Background

A characteristic feature of frog reproduction is external fertilization accomplished outside the female's body. Mature fertilization-competent frog eggs are arrested at the meiotic metaphase II with high activity of the key meiotic regulators, maturation promoting factor (MPF) and cytostatic factor (CSF), awaiting fertilization. If the eggs are not fertilized within several hours of ovulation, they deteriorate and ultimately die by as yet unknown mechanism.

Results

Here, we report that the vast majority of naturally laid unfertilized eggs of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis spontaneously exit metaphase arrest under various environmental conditions and degrade by a well-defined apoptotic process within 48 hours after ovulation. The main features of this process include cytochrome c release, caspase activation, ATP depletion, increase of ADP/ATP ratio, apoptotic nuclear morphology, progressive intracellular acidification, and egg swelling. Meiotic exit seems to be a prerequisite for execution of the apoptotic program, since (i) it precedes apoptosis, (ii) apoptotic events cannot be observed in the eggs maintaining high activity of MPF and CSF, and (iii) apoptosis in unfertilized frog eggs is accelerated upon early meiotic exit. The apoptotic features cannot be observed in the immature prophase-arrested oocytes, however, the maturation-inducing hormone progesterone renders oocytes susceptible to apoptosis.

Conclusions

The study reveals that naturally laid intact frog eggs die by apoptosis if they are not fertilized. A maternal apoptotic program is evoked in frog oocytes upon maturation and executed after meiotic exit in unfertilized eggs. The meiotic exit is required for execution of the apoptotic program in eggs. The emerging anti-apoptotic role of meiotic metaphase arrest needs further investigation.

Comparative homology modeling of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isozymes from Xenopus tropicalis reveals structural basis for their subfunctionalization

Structural-functional divergence is responsible for the preservation of highly homologous genes. Protein functions affected by mutagenesis in divergent sequences require investigation on an individual basis. In the present study, comparative homology modeling and predictive bioinformatics analysis were used to reveal for the first time the subfunctionalization of two pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) isozymes in the western clawed frog Xenopus tropicalis. Three-dimensional structures of the two proteins were built by homology modeling based on the crystal structures of mammalian PDKs. A detailed comparison of them revealed important structural differences that modify the accessibility of the nucleotide binding site in the two isozymes. Based on the generated models and bioinformatics data analysis, the differences between the two proteins in terms of kinetic parameters, metabolic regulation, and tissue distribution are predicted. The results obtained are consistent with the idea that one of the xtPDKs is the major isozyme responsible for metabolic control of PDC activity in X. tropicalis, whereas the other one has more specialized functions. Hence, this study provides a rationale for the existence of two closely related PDK isozymes in X. tropicalis, thereby enhancing our understanding of the functional evolution of PDK family genes.

Activation of T7 RNA polymerase in Xenopus oocytes and cell-free extracts

Single-subunit bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase (T7 RNAP) is universally employed for in vivo and in vitro transcription of genes put under control of the T7 promoter. The enzyme is capable of transcribing a complete gene without additional proteins. In this study, we reveal the presence of a low molecular weight factor, which induces several-fold activation of T7 RNAP in the cytoplasm of oocytes and eggs from Xenopus laevis. Cell-free reconstitution of the T7 RNAP activation allowed us to investigate the molecular properties of the activator, establish its peptide nature and suggest T7 RNAP activation mechanism. In contrast to the previously described nonspecific transcriptional activators, which interact with scattered ionic sites on nucleic acids, the peptide activator associates with T7 RNAP molecule, thus being a bona fide activator of the polymerase. To our knowledge, this is the first report concerning the specific activation of T7 RNAP by a factor of peptide or protein origin. Besides rather obvious merits in gaining more efficient transcription with T7 RNAP, this finding can provide additional insights into regulatory mechanisms of transcription. The study also introduces a novel highly sensitive luminescent assay of T7 RNAP activity.

Analysis of signal transduction in cell-free extracts and rafts of Xenopus eggs

Intracellular signaling during egg activation/fertilization has been extensively studied using intact eggs, which can be manipulated by microinjection of different mRNAs, proteins, or chemical drugs. Furthermore, egg extracts, which retain high CSF activity (CSF-arrested extracts), were developed for studying fertilization/activation signal transduction, which have significant advantages as a model system. The addition of calcium to CSF-arrested extracts initiates a plethora of signaling events that take place during egg activation. Hence, the signaling downstream of calcium mobilization has been successfully studied in the egg extracts. Moreover, despite disruption of membrane-associated signaling compartments and ordered compartmentalization during extract preparation, CSF-arrested extracts can be successfully used to study early signaling events, which occur upstream of calcium release during egg activation/fertilization. In combination with the CSF-arrested extracts, activated egg rafts can reproduce some events of egg activation, including PLCgamma activation, IP3 production, transient calcium release, MAPK inactivation, and meiotic exit. This becomes possible due to complementation of the sperm-induced egg activation signaling machinery present in the rafts with the components of signal transduction system localized in the extracts. Herein, we describe protocols for studying molecular mechanisms of egg fertilization/activation using cell-free extracts and membrane rafts prepared from metaphase-arrested Xenopus eggs.

Evidence that phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase is involved in sperm-induced tyrosine kinase signaling in Xenopus egg fertilization

BACKGROUND

Studies have examined the function of PI 3-kinase in the early developmental processes that operate in oocytes or early embryos of various species. However, the roles of egg-associated PI 3-kinase and Akt, especially in signal transduction at fertilization, are not well understood.

RESULTS

Here we show that in Xenopus eggs, a potent inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase), LY294002 inhibits sperm-induced activation of the tyrosine kinase Src and a transient increase in the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ at fertilization. LY294002 also inhibits sperm-induced dephosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase, breakdown of cyclin B2 and Mos, and first embryonic cleavage, all of which are events of Ca2+-dependent egg activation. In fertilized eggs, an 85-kDa subunit of PI 3-kinase (p85) undergoes a transient translocation to the low-density, detergent-insoluble membranes (membrane microdomains) where Src tyrosine kinase signaling is operating. However, the tyrosine phosphorylation of p85 in fertilized eggs is not as evident as that in H2O2-activated eggs, arguing against the possibility that PI 3-kinase is activated by Src phosphorylation. Nevertheless, sperm-induced activation of PI 3-kinase has been demonstrated by the finding that Akt, a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, is phosphorylated at threonine-308. The threonine-phosphorylated Akt also localizes to the membrane microdomains of fertilized eggs. Application of bp(V), an inhibitor of PTEN that dephosphorylates PIP3, the enzymatic product of PI 3-kinase, promotes parthenogenetic activation of Xenopus eggs. In vitro kinase assays demonstrate that PIP3 activates Src in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that PI 3-kinase is involved in sperm-induced egg activation via production of PIP3 that would act as a positive regulator of the Src signaling pathway in Xenopus fertilization.

Comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of cell-free protein synthesis: identification of multiple protein properties that correlate with successful expression

High-throughput cell-free protein synthesis is being used increasingly in structural/functional genomics projects. However, the factors determining expression success are poorly understood. Here, we evaluated the expression of 3066 human proteins and their domains in a bacterial cell-free system and analyzed the correlation of protein expression with 39 physicochemical and structural properties of proteins. As a result of the bioinformatics analysis performed, we determined the 18 most influential features that affect protein amenability to cell-free expression. They include protein length; hydrophobicity; pI; content of charged, nonpolar, and aromatic residues;, cysteine content; solvent accessibility; presence of coiled coil; content of intrinsically disordered and structured (alpha-helix and beta-sheet) sequence; number of disulfide bonds and functional domains; presence of transmembrane regions; PEST motifs; and signaling sequences. This study represents the first comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of heterologous protein synthesis in a cell-free system. The rules and correlations revealed here provide a plethora of important insights into rationalization of cell-free protein production and can be of practical use for protein engineering with the aim of increasing expression success.-Kurotani, A., Takagi, T., Toyama, M., Shirouzu, M., Yokoyama, S., Fukami, Y., Tokmakov, A. A. Comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of cell-free protein synthesis: identification of multiple protein properties that correlate with successful expression.

[Nongenomic mechanisms of progesterone]

Rapid, independent of transcriptional effects of progesterone have been observed in various types of cells, tissues and species. In some biological systems, these nongenomic actions and associated with them signal transduction pathways are characterized in detail at molecular level. This review summarizes findings concerning the role of progestins in the regulation of such physiological functions and processes as meiotic maturation of fish and amphibian oocytes; growth and proliferation of normal and transformed cells of mammary gland; contraction of myometrium; survival and functional activity of granulose cells; sperm capacitation, acrosome reaction and hypermotility; immune function of T lymphocytes; survival and function of brain cells. The participation of several types of receptor proteins in the nongenomic progesterone signaling is discussed. They include the classic nuclear progesterone receptor, PR, the membrane progestin receptor, mPR, the progesterone membrane receptor component, PGMRC, the oxytocin receptor, OTR, and the GABA receptor, GABA(A).

Coupled transcription-and-translation in Xenopus oocyte and egg extracts

Coinjection of T7 promoter-driven plasmids and T7 RNA polymerase (T7 RNAP) into Xenopus oocytes results in robust protein synthesis, due to simultaneous gene transcription-and-translation (TnT) in the oocyte cytoplasm [Geib, S., Sandoz, G., Carlier, E., V. Cornet, Cheynet-Sauvion, V., De Waard, M., 2001. A novel Xenopus oocyte expression system based on cytoplasmic coinjection of T7-driven plasmids and purified T7-RNA polymerase. Receptors Channels 7, 331-343; Tokmakov, A.A., Matsumoto, E., Shirouzu, M., Yokoyama, S., 2006. Coupled cytoplasmic transcription-and-translation--a method of choice for heterologous gene experession in Xenopus oocytes. J. Biotechnol. 122, 5-15]. In the present study, we demonstrate that the TnT reaction of protein synthesis can be reconstituted in cell-free extracts of Xenopus oocytes and eggs. Similar to the reaction in oocytes, the effective coupling of bacteriophage T7 RNAP-mediated transcription with the eukaryotic translation machinery takes place in the Xenopus oocyte and egg extracts. However, the kinetics of protein and RNA production in the extracts are quite different from those observed in oocytes. Potent RNA synthesis in the extracts starts immediately after the addition of T7 promoter-driven DNA and T7 RNAP and continues for about 30 min, followed by RNA degradation. The protein product is detectable in the extracts in 15 min after the initiation of the TnT reaction. Efficient protein synthesis in the extracts continues for about 1h. The productivity of this expression system can be boosted by the additions of an RNase inhibitor and an ATP-regeneration system, and by extract dilution. Kinetic analyses suggested that extending the lifetime of the extracts would further increase their productivity.

Phylogeny of Vertebrate Src Tyrosine Kinases Revealed by the Epitope Region of mAb327

Mass fingerprinting and MS/MS analysis demonstrated that Xyk, a 57-kDa Src family tyrosine kinase that is activated within minutes of Xenopus egg fertilization, comprises a mixture of two Src proteins, Src1 and Src2. However, the Xenopus Src protein, denoted as xSrc, is hardly detectable with mAb327, a universal Src-specific antibody, whose target sequence has not yet been determined. We show that a point amino acid substitution in the Src homology 3 domain of xSrc is critical for improvement of the low efficiency of its recognition by mAb327. Namely, a point-mutated xSrc, in which Arg-121 was replaced by His that is conserved among mAb327-reactive Src in mammals and chicken, showed increased recognition by mAb327. On the other hand, a mutant chicken Src, in which the His-122 residue is replaced by Arg, showed decreased recognition by mAb327. Genomic sequencing analysis also demonstrated that reptile Src proteins are of either the R-type (snake) or H-type (caiman, turtle, and tortoise). These studies revealed, for the first time, a critical amino acid in the Src SH3 domain for mAb327 recognition, and suggest a novel scheme for the molecular evolution of Src, in which the H-type Src(s) are monophyletic and derived from the R-type Src.

Studying fertilization in cell-free extracts: focusing on membrane/lipid raft functions and proteomics

Xenopus oocytes, eggs, and embryos serve as an ideal model system to study several aspects of animal development (e.g., gametogenesis, fertilization, embryogenesis, and organogenesis). In particular, the Xenopus system has been extensively employed not only as a "living cell" system but also as a "cell-free" or "reconstitutional" system. In this chapter, we describe a protocol for studying the molecular mechanism of egg fertilization with the use of cell-free extracts and membrane/lipid rafts prepared from unfertilized, metaphase II-arrested Xenopus eggs. By using this experimental system, we have reconstituted a series of signal transduction events associated with egg fertilization, such as sperm-egg membrane interaction, activation of Src tyrosine kinase and phospholipase Cgamma, production of inositol trisphosphate, transient calcium release, and cell cycle transition. This type of reconstitutional system may allow us to perform focused proteomics (e.g., rafts) as well as global protein analysis (i.e., whole egg proteome) of fertilization in a cell-free manner. As one of these proteomics approaches, we provide a protocol for molecular identification of Xenopus egg raft proteins using mass spectrometry and database mining.

Molecular cloning and expression analysis of PDK family genes in Xenopus laevis reveal oocyte-specific PDK isoform

Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inactivates the multienzyme mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex by the phosphorylation of three seryl residues in the pyruvate dehydrogenase moiety, and thus plays an important role in the control of glucose homeostasis. Genetically and biochemically distinct PDK family isozymes have been identified in mammalian species. In the present study, we demonstrate that the complete family of expressed PDK family genes in the tissues of the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, consists of four members, which are divided into two evolutionary groups. Xenopus PDKs (xPDKs) share an overall homology of about 70% to the human isoforms of PDK. The abundance of mRNAs for the four xPDK isoforms was analyzed by the real-time reverse transcriptase PCR technique in the various tissues of Xenopus laevis, including heart, lung, spleen, liver, kidney, skin, testis, oocytes, and eggs. Our data suggest that one of the xPDK isozymes can be referred to as an oocyte-specific xPDK. Functional differences between the xPDK isoforms are discussed, based on their different tissue-specific distributions and phylogenetic similarities to human PDKs.

Coupled cytoplasmic transcription-and-translation--a method of choice for heterologous gene expression in Xenopus oocytes

We demonstrate here that the intracellular environment of Xenopus oocytes is quite compatible with the requirements of T7 RNA polymerase (T7 RNAP)-mediated transcription. This reaction runs robustly in the oocyte cytoplasm for many hours. The coinjection of a T7 promoter-driven luciferase-encoding plasmid DNA and purified T7 RNAP into oocytes results in the prolonged production of luciferase protein. Thus, the efficient coupling of T7 RNAP-mediated transcription with the intrinsic oocyte translation machinery occurs in the oocyte cytoplasm. The coupled protein synthesis generates high expression yield, displays little variation in the expression level between individual oocytes, requires very limited amounts of DNA template and T7 RNAP, and does not affect the oocyte viability and functional status. Our detailed, quantitative comparison of the existing expression methods in Xenopus oocytes highlights the advantages of the technique based on the cytoplasmic coinjection of T7 RNAP and T7 promoter-driven plasmid DNA and demonstrates that it is greatly superior to the alternative methods of heterologous gene expression.

Reconstitution of Src-dependent phospholipase Cgamma phosphorylation and transient calcium release by using membrane rafts and cell-free extracts from Xenopus eggs

We reported previously that egg membrane rafts serve as a subcellular microdomain for sperm-dependent tyrosine kinase signaling in Xenopus fertilization. Moreover, we demonstrated that raft-associated Src tyrosine kinase was activated by sperm in vitro. Here we show that egg rafts incubated with sperm or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can promote Src-dependent phosphorylation of phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) and transient calcium release in the extracts of unfertilized Xenopus eggs. In vivo egg activation by sperm or H2O2 also promotes tyrosine phosphorylation and raft-translocalization of PLCgamma. Immunodepletion of PLCgamma from the egg extracts inhibits the raft-dependent calcium release. Rafts prepared from H2O2-activated eggs also promote Src-dependent dephosphorylation of p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase and cell cycle transition from metaphase II to interphase in egg extracts. PLCgamma phosphorylation and calcium release in egg extracts can be promoted by rafts prepared from COS-7 cells expressing the Xenopus Src gene. These results demonstrate that the signaling events elicited by fertilization in Xenopus eggs can be reconstituted in vitro. The development of such experimental platforms will allow us to dissect the molecular mechanism of sperm-dependent activation of raft-associated Src and subsequent up-regulation of PLCgamma and egg activation machinery in Xenopus eggs.

Adaptor protein Shc is an isoform-specific direct activator of the tyrosine kinase c-Src

The activity of c-Src protein-tyrosine kinase is up-regulated under a number of receptor signaling pathways. However, the activation mechanism of c-Src under physiological conditions has remained unclear. We show here that the Shc adaptor protein is a novel direct activator of c-Src in epidermal growth factor receptor signaling in A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells. Among the three Shc isoforms, P66 and P52, but not P46, were found to interact with and activate c-Src in vitro and in vivo. Activation of c-Src accompanied autophosphorylation of c-Src in the activation segment, but the carboxyl-terminal dephosphorylation was not observed. We have identified the interaction sites between Shc and c-Src and constructed a point mutant of Shc that abolishes the c-Src activation. Using this mutant, we have confirmed that the Shc-mediated c-Src activation triggers Stat-p21/WAF1/Cip1 pathway that has been implicated in the cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of epidermal growth factor-stimulated A431 cells.

Src kinase induces calcium release in Xenopus egg extracts via PLCgamma and IP3-dependent mechanism

Mobilization of intracellular calcium is an indispensable step of fertilization-induced egg activation. Recently, this process has been shown to require the sequential activation of Src family tyrosine kinases, phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma), and inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)-dependent receptor of endoplasmic reticulum. In the present study, we made an attempt to recapitulate the early events of egg activation by stimulating Src kinase activity in the cell-free extracts of Xenopus eggs. We found that enhanced Src kinase activity can initiate calcium response of low magnitude in cytostatic factor (CSF)-arrested mitotic extracts without releasing them into interphase. The addition of catalytically active recombinant Src kinase, as well as the activation of endogenous Xenopus Src family kinase by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), increased total tyrosine phosphorylation, tyrosine phosphorylation of PLCgamma, and IP3 production in the extracts. The treatment with the Src family kinase-specific inhibitor, PP1, or PLC inhibitor, U73122, or IP3 receptor antagonist, heparin, prevented calcium release in the extracts. We conclude, therefore, that possible mechanism of Src/H2O2 action in the extracts might involve tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of PLCgamma, accompanied by the increase in IP3 content and subsequent calcium release from IP3-regulated calcium stores. These results also suggest that monitoring calcium signals induced in the Xenopus egg extracts by various components of signaling pathways may provide a particularly useful approach to investigating their role in the signal transduction.

Low density detergent-insoluble membrane of Xenopus eggs: subcellular microdomain for tyrosine kinase signaling in fertilization

Protein-tyrosine phosphorylation plays an important role in egg activation signaling at fertilization. We show that in Xenopus, fertilization stimulates a rapid and transient tyrosine phosphorylation of egg proteins, as revealed by immunoblotting with anti-phosphotyrosine antibody. Immunofluorescent microscopic analysis demonstrated that the phosphorylation occurs in cortical area of the egg animal hemisphere. To further characterize subcellular compartment for fertilization-dependent tyrosine kinase signaling, we isolated low density detergent-insoluble membrane (LD-DIM) fraction from Xenopus eggs. The egg LD-DIM was enriched in cholesterol and GM1 ganglioside. It also contained signaling molecules such as Xyk (Xenopus egg Src), Gqα, Ras, integrin β1 and CD9. Fertilization stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of Xyk and some other LD-DIM proteins. Remarkably, sperm stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of the LD-DIM proteins in vitro. The sperm-dependent phosphorylation was sensitive to the tyrosine kinase inhibitors PP2 and genistein. We found that pretreatment of eggs with methyl-β-cyclodextrin, a cholesterol-binding substance, led to a decrease in cholesterol, Xyk and sperm-induced tyrosine phosphorylation in LD-DIM. In methyl-β-cyclodextrin-treated eggs, sperm-induced Ca2+ transient and first cell division were also inhibited. These findings suggest that the egg LD-DIM might serve as subcellular microdomain for tyrosine kinase signaling in Xenopus egg fertilization.

[The signalling cascade of fertilization]

The early event of fertilization-induced egg activation is a mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ that originates from the sperm entry point and spreads through the entire egg cytoplasm. Recently, this process has been established to require the sequential activation of Src family kinases, phospholipase C gamma, and inositoltrisphosphate receptor of endoplasmic reticulum. This review summarizes recent findings concerning the signalling pathway of fertilization from sperm-egg interaction to the Ca2+ release with emphasis on the role of tyrosine kinases in the egg activation.

Calcium oscillations in Xenopus egg cycling extracts

Cell cycle in various types of cells and in early embryos is often accompanied by transient changes in the concentration of free cytosolic calcium. In the present study, using fluorescent indicator fura-2, we demonstrate that Ca(2+) oscillates cyclically with an amplitude of about 100 nM and a period of mitotic cycle in cell-free Xenopus egg cycling extracts. It peaks in early metaphase just preceding mitotic reactivation of Cdc2 kinase and MAPK and reaches a minimum in interphase. The source of Ca(2+) in the extracts is a particulate fraction containing egg intracellular Ca(2+) stores, since the addition of a calcium-mobilizing second messenger, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), induced a transient increase in Ca(2+). The inclusion of heparin, an IP3 receptor antagonist, or ultrafiltration of the extracts prevented Ca(2+)-releasing activity of IP3. The depletion of Ca(2+) in the extracts by the calcium chelator BAPTA resulted in the blockade of cell cycle at different stages, depending on the time of drug administration. The addition of BAPTA late in interphase blocked cell cycle at mitotic entry in prophase, whereas its application in anaphase or telophase blocked the extracts in early interphase. BAPTA administration in metaphase before transition to anaphase brought about a metaphase-like arrest in the cycling extracts. Inhibition of IP3-induced calcium release by heparin also arrested cell cycle progression in the cycling extracts.

Hydrogen peroxide induces Src family tyrosine kinase-dependent activation of Xenopus eggs

Fertilization is accompanied by a rapid and transient calcium release in eggs, which is required for the onset of zygotic developmental program or 'egg activation'. Recently, it was found that Src family tyrosine kinase (SFK)-dependent phospholipase C (PLC) activity is necessary for the calcium transience in fertilized Xenopus eggs. The present study demonstrates that hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) stimulates protein-tyrosine phosphorylation in Xenopus eggs, which occurs primarily in the egg cortex of the animal hemisphere as revealed by indirect immunofluorescence study. Egg SFK was found to be upregulated by H2O2 while the SFK-specific inhibitor PP1 effectively blocked H2O2-induced tyrosine phosphorylation. As in fertilized eggs, PLCgamma, but not Shc, was tyrosine-phosphorylated in H2O2-treated eggs. H2O2 also caused inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) production and sustained calcium release. After limited application of H2O2, elevated SFK activity and tyrosine phosphorylation were quickly reversed. Under such conditions, eggs showed cortical contraction and dephosphorylation of p42 MAP kinase, both of which are indicative of egg activation. These egg activation events, as well as H2O2-induced IP3 production and calcium release, were sensitive to PP1 and PLC inhibitor U-73122. Together, the present study demonstrated that H2O2 can mimic, at least in part, early events of Xenopus egg activation that require an SFK-dependent PLC pathway.

Adaptor protein Shc undergoes translocation and mediates up-regulation of the tyrosine kinase c-Src in EGF-stimulated A431 cells

BACKGROUND

Shc is the adaptor protein that exists in three isoforms, P46, P52 and P66, and acts as a bridge between activated cell surface receptors and downstream signalling molecules which act in extracellular signal-regulated cell events such as cell cycle progression. In our previous studies, Shc was shown to be a substrate of the tyrosine kinase c-Src in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

Using green fluorescent protein-fusion Shc (GFP-Shc), we have shown that following epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulation of A431 cells, all Shc isoforms were rapidly recruited from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane (within 5 min) and then redistributed to the cytoplasmic vesicle structures (in the next 10-20 min). Indirect immunofluorescent study demonstrated that all Shc isoforms co-localize with EGF receptor (EGFR) and activated c-Src in both plasma membranes and cytoplasmic vesicle structures. Our previous study has shown that EGF induces the indirect association of EGFR and c-Src and activation of c-Src in A431 cells. An immunoprecipitation study demonstrated that the EGFR-Src association and c-Src activation are augmented in cells expressing GFP-Shc P52 or P66, but not P46. In addition, P52 and P66, but not P46, are in association with EGFR-Src complex. We also found that EGFR and Shc can be dissociated from c-Src by the addition of a synthetic peptide that corresponds to the autophosphorylation site of c-Src. Interestingly, the peptide-induced dissociation of the complex was not affected by the tyrosine phosphorylation state of the peptide.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrated a dynamic subcellular movement of Shc in response to EGF, and suggested a hitherto unknown scheme whereby Shc can work not only as a substrate of c-Src but also as a mediator of the EGF-induced activation of c-Src in an isoform-specific manner.

Tyrosine kinase-dependent activation of phospholipase Cgamma is required for calcium transient in Xenopus egg fertilization

In a previous study (K.-I. Sato et al., 1999, Dev. Biol. 209, 308-320), we presented evidence that a Src-related protein-tyrosine kinase (PTK), named Xyk, may act upstream of the calcium release in fertilization of the Xenopus egg. In the present study, we examined whether PTK activation of phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) plays a role in the fertilization-induced calcium signaling. Immunoprecipitation studies show that Xenopus egg PLCgamma is tyrosine phosphorylated and activated within a few minutes after fertilization but not after A23187-induced egg activation. Consistently, we observed a fertilization-induced association of PLCgamma with Xyk activity that was not seen in A23187-activated eggs. A Src-specific PTK inhibitor, PP1, blocked effectively the fertilization-induced association of PLCgamma with Xyk activity and up-regulation of PLCgamma, when microinjected into the egg. In addition, a PLC inhibitor, U-73122, inhibited sperm-induced inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production and the calcium transient and subsequent calcium-dependent events such as cortical contraction, elevation of fertilization envelope, and tyrosine dephosphorylation of p42 MAP kinase, all of which were also inhibited by PP1. On the other hand, A23187 could cause the calcium response and calcium-dependent events in eggs injected with PP1 or U-73122. These results support the idea that Xenopus egg fertilization requires Src-family PTK-dependent PLCgamma activity that acts upstream of the calcium-dependent signaling pathway.

Fertilization signalling and protein-tyrosine kinases

Fertilization is initiated by species-specific gamete cell recognition, i.e. sperm-egg interaction, followed by a rapid and sustained activation of multiple cellular and biochemical events, collectively called 'egg activation', which is indispensable for successful formation of zygotic nucleus and later embryogenesis. It is well known that sperm-induced egg activation is mediated by a transient release of calcium ions that originates from the sperm entry point and propagates through the entire egg cytoplasm. It is unclear, however, what kind of upstream events prelude to the calcium transient after sperm-egg interaction. Recently, much attention has been paid to the role of protein-tyrosine phosphorylation in egg activation process by a number of studies on some well-established model organisms. These includes marine invertebrates, frogs, and mammals. In this review, we will summarize the recent findings that begin to uncover a 'missing link' between sperm-egg interaction and egg activation with emphasis on the role of egg protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) in Xenopus egg fertilization.

Deregulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase at low pH due to a structural rearrangement of activation segment

Autophosphorylation of recombinant mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) on Tyr was found to be several-fold stimulated at weakly acidic pH (5.5-6.0), whereas the phosphorylation of a protein substrate, myelin basic protein, was greatly inhibited at pH below 6. 0. In contrast to phosphorylation at pH 8.0, both MAPK autophosphorylation and MAPK phosphorylation with upstream MAPK kinase at low pH failed to stimulate essentially its kinase activity towards the exogenous protein substrate. Immunoprecipitation and ELISA with an activation segment-specific antibody, kinetic analysis, and reversible phosphorylation assay revealed a difference in the folding of MAPK activation segment at pH 5.5 and 8.0. The data suggest that a rearrangement of the activation segment at low pH promotes a stable low-activity conformation of the enzyme which is favorable for intramolecular autophosphorylation. In this conformation, the phosphorylation of the exogenous protein substrate is inhibited due to persistent blocking of the enzyme catalytic center by the activation segment.

Evidence for the involvement of a Src-related tyrosine kinase in Xenopus egg activation

Recently, we have purified a Src-related tyrosine kinase, named Xenopus tyrosine kinase (Xyk), from oocytes of Xenopus laevis and found that the enzyme is activated within 1 min following fertilization [Sato et al. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 13250-13257]. A concomitant translocation of a part of the activated enzyme from the membrane fraction to the cytosolic fraction was also observed. In the present study, we show that parthenogenetic egg activation by a synthetic RGDS peptide [Y. Iwao and T. Fujimura, T. (1996) Dev. Biol. 177, 558-567], an integrin-interacting peptide, but not by electrical shock or the calcium ionophore A23187 causes the kinase activation, tyrosine phosphorylation, and translocation of Xyk. A synthetic tyrosine kinase-specific inhibitor peptide was employed to analyze the importance of the Xyk activity in egg activation. We found that the peptide inhibits the kinase activity of purified Xyk at IC50 of 8 microM. Further, egg activation induced by sperm or RGDS peptide but not by A23187 was inhibited by microinjection of the peptide. In the peptide-microinjected eggs, penetration of the sperm nucleus into the egg cytoplasm and meiotic resumption in the egg were blocked. Indirect immunofluorescence study demonstrates that Xyk is exclusively localized to the cortex of Xenopus eggs, indicating that Xyk can function in close proximity to the sperm-egg or RGDS peptide-egg interaction site. Taken together, these data suggest that the tyrosine kinase Xyk plays an important role in the early events of Xenopus egg activation in a manner independent or upstream of calcium signaling.

A 58-kDa Shc protein is present in Xenopus eggs and is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues upon egg activation

A 58-kDa protein was detected in Xenopus egg lysate by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting with an antibody raised against adaptor protein Shc, a well known tyrosine kinase substrate in numerous biological events. Tyrosine phosphorylation of the Xenopus Shc protein (p58 xShc) was found to increase 2.3 +/- 0.4-fold (n = 3) upon fertilization. Pretreatment of eggs with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein effectively blocked the fertilization-dependent phosphorylation. Tyrosine phosphorylation of p58 xShc was also observed when eggs were activated parthenogenetically by an integrin-interacting RGDS-peptide which is known to cause egg activation accompanied by intracellular calcium release. On the other hand, other egg-activating treatments such as electrical shock and calcium ionophore, which directly induce the elevation of intracellular calcium, did not show such an effect. It is also suggested that the phosphorylated p58 xShc may play a role unique to the egg activation process because we found that there was no increase of Shc-Grb2 complex after fertilization. These results demonstrate that p58 xShc is a substrate of egg tyrosine kinases which may be activated by sperm-egg interaction and suggest that the phosphorylated p58 xShc may act upstream of the calcium-dependent pathway of egg activation.

Peptide inhibitors of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway: a structure -mimetic peptide corresponding to the conserved inter-DFG-APE region in the kinase domain

The signal transduction pathway mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinases is an attractive target for the design of pharmacologically effective inhibitors. Two specific cell-permeant small molecule inhibitors of this pathway have been reported. However, under certain circumstances, nonpermeable inhibitors, such as neutralizing antibodies and peptide inhibitors, are also useful. We present here a novel approach for such peptide inhibitor design. The procedure is based on the synthesis of a structure-mimetic peptide corresponding to a short peptide segment in the target molecule. The results obtained so far show that a peptide designed in such a way is an effective inhibitor of the pathway. The possible application of such peptides and antipeptide antibodies as probes for protein kinase regulation mechanisms is also evaluated.

Inhibition of MAPK pathway by a synthetic peptide corresponding to the activation segment of MAPK

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is activated by phosphorylation within its activation segment. Upon phosphorylation, the activation segment refolds to provide the active conformation of the enzyme. We reported previously that a phosphorylation-sensitive secondary structure could be formed in a 26-amino-acid long synthetic peptide corresponding to the activation segment of Xenopus MAPK, termed IDA (Inter-DFG-APE) MAPK peptide (Tokmakov, A. A., et al. 1997, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 236, 243-247). Here, we show that unphosphorylated IDA MAPK peptide can inhibit in vitro both MAPK and MAPK kinase activities with the inhibition constants of 82 and 18 microM, respectively. Phosphorylated forms of the peptide were of little effect. IDA MAPK peptide did not inhibit significantly the activity of some other protein kinases, including MAPK homologue p38 kinase, suggesting the specificity for MAPK and MAPK kinase. Microinjection of unphosphorylated IDA MAPK peptide into immature Xenopus oocytes significantly suppressed progesterone-induced oocyte maturation by inhibiting activation of both MAPK and maturation promoting factor. Similar inhibition of maturation was registered upon oocyte treatment with another specific inhibitor of MAPK pathway, PD098059. These results depict IDA MAPK peptide as a selective inhibitor of the MAPK pathway that can be used for the investigations of MAPK-mediated signaling.

c-Src and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase are involved in NGF-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc in PC12 cells

The adaptor protein Shc exists in three isoforms; p46, p52, and p66, and is a key regulator of a variety of biological processes. Our previous studies have shown that the tyrosine kinase c-Src phosphorylates Shc in a phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) 4,5-bisphosphate-dependent manner. Here we demonstrate that PtdIns 3,4,5-trisphosphate stimulates phosphorylation of Shc by c-Src. The phosphorylation is blocked by a glutathione S-transferase fusion protein containing Shc phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domain or a phosphotyrosine-containing Shc PTB domain-binding peptide. In rat pheochromocytoma cell line PC12, nerve growth factor (NGF) stimulates tyrosine phosphorylation of both Triton-soluble and -insoluble Shc which was maximal at 2-5 min after NGF treatment. We find that pretreatment of PC12 cells with the PtdIns 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin or LY294002 results in almost half inhibition of the NGF-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of only Triton-insoluble Shc. Similar inhibitory effect is observed with tyrosine kinase inhibitors genistein and PP1. Upon NGF stimulation, c-Src also becomes tyrosine-phosphorylated and accumulates in the Triton-insoluble fraction. The c-Src events are insensitive to wortmannin but sensitive to genistein. These results suggest that coordinate action of PtdIns 3-kinase and/or PtdIns 3,4,5-trisphosphate and c-Src can function as positive regulator in tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc in vitro and in vivo.

Involvement of protein-tyrosine phosphorylation and dephosphorylation in sperm-induced Xenopus egg activation

We have analyzed tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins in Xenopus laevis eggs before and after fertilization by immunoblotting with anti-phosphotyrosine antibody. A number of egg proteins with different subcellular distribution became tyrosine-phosphorylated or dephosphorylated within 30 min after insemination. Tyrosine kinase-specific inhibitors genistein and herbimycin A were found to inhibit sperm-induced egg activation judged by the egg cortical contraction. Surprisingly, sodium orthovanadate, a tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, also inhibited the egg activation. Moreover, we found that fertilization-dependent tyrosine dephosphorylation of 42-kDa mitogen-activated protein kinase was inhibited in genistein-treated eggs. These results suggest that both protein-tyrosine phosphorylation and dephosphorylation pathways play an important role in the sperm-induced Xenopus egg activation.

Tyrosine residues 239 and 240 of Shc are phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-dependent phosphorylation sites by c-Src

In the previous study (Sato K.-I. et al. (1997) FEBS Lett. 410, 136-140), we showed that the phosphorylation of Shc protein by c-Src is dependent on the binding of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) to the PTB domain of Shc. In this study, we demonstrate that, in contrast to c-Src, v-Src and epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor can phosphorylate Shc in a PtdIns(4,5)P2-independent manner and at different phosphorylation sites. To determine the phosphorylation sites in Shc, we used mutant Shc proteins in which tyrosine residues (Y) 317 and/or 239 and 240 were replaced by phenylalanine residues (F). We found that Y317F Shc but not Y239/240F or Y239/240/317F Shc was phosphorylated by c-Src. The reaction was PtdIns(4,5)P2-dependent and inhibited by the addition of PTB domain of Shc. On the other hand, v-Src and EGF receptor were able to phosphorylate both Y317F and Y239/240F but not Y239/240/317F Shc in a PtdIns(4,5)P2-independent manner. These results highlight the difference between c-Src and v-Src or EGF receptor and suggest that c-Src can phosphorylate predominantly on Tyr239/240 of Shc only when Shc PTB domain is bound to PtdIns(4,5)P2.

Phosphorylation-sensitive secondary structure in a synthetic peptide corresponding to the activation loop of MAP kinase

A 26-amino acid long synthetic peptide corresponding to the activation loop of Xenopus MAP kinase (MAPK), termed IDA (Inter-DFG-APE) MAPK peptide, was found to efficiently inhibit the immunoprecipitation of the enzyme with anti-IDA MAPK serum. The value of half-inhibition concentration (100 nM) indicates that the IDA peptide and native MAPK activation loop are virtually indistinguishable in terms of antibody recognition. On the other hand, the Tyr-phosphorylated form of the peptide exerted its inhibitory action at around one order higher concentration. Shorter nonapeptides covering the epitope sequence of anti-IDA MAPK antibody could also affect the immunoprecipitation but at much higher concentrations (half-inhibition concentration approximately 100 microM) and independently of their phosphorylation state. Circular dichroic study revealed that a secondary structure could be readily induced with the aid of trifluoroethanol in the unphosphorylated and, to a less extent, in the Tyr-phosphorylated IDA MAPK peptide but not in the shorter nonapeptides. These results suggest that the secondary structure similar to that of the unphosphorylated activation loop of MAPK can be formed in the IDA MAPK peptide and may be lost upon its Tyr-phosphorylation.