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Borrega R, Nelson DKS, Koval AP, Bond NG, Heinrich ML, Rowland MM, Lathigra R, Bush DJ, Aimukanova I, Phinney WN, Koval SA, Hoffmann AR, Smither AR, Bell-Kareem AR, Melnik LI, Genemaras KJ, Chao K, Snarski P, Melton AB, Harrell JE, Smira AA, Elliott DH, Rouelle JA, Sabino-Santos G, Drouin AC, Momoh M, Sandi JD, Goba A, Samuels RJ, Kanneh L, Gbakie M, Branco ZL, Shaffer JG, Schieffelin JS, Robinson JE, Fusco DN, Sabeti PC, Andersen KG, Grant DS, Boisen ML, Branco LM, Garry RF. Cross-Reactive Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV in Pre-COVID-19 Blood Samples from Sierra Leoneans. Viruses 2021; 13:2325. [PMID: 34835131 PMCID: PMC8625389 DOI: 10.3390/v13112325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa have experienced lower COVID-19 caseloads and fewer deaths than countries in other regions worldwide. Under-reporting of cases and a younger population could partly account for these differences, but pre-existing immunity to coronaviruses is another potential factor. Blood samples from Sierra Leonean Lassa fever and Ebola survivors and their contacts collected before the first reported COVID-19 cases were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the presence of antibodies binding to proteins of coronaviruses that infect humans. Results were compared to COVID-19 subjects and healthy blood donors from the United States. Prior to the pandemic, Sierra Leoneans had more frequent exposures than Americans to coronaviruses with epitopes that cross-react with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), SARS-CoV, and Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The percentage of Sierra Leoneans with antibodies reacting to seasonal coronaviruses was also higher than for American blood donors. Serological responses to coronaviruses by Sierra Leoneans did not differ by age or sex. Approximately a quarter of Sierra Leonian pre-pandemic blood samples had neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus, while about a third neutralized MERS-CoV pseudovirus. Prior exposures to coronaviruses that induce cross-protective immunity may contribute to reduced COVID-19 cases and deaths in Sierra Leone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Borrega
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Diana K. S. Nelson
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Broomfield, CO 80045, USA; (D.K.S.N.); (D.J.B.); (I.A.); (W.N.P.)
| | - Anatoliy P. Koval
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Nell G. Bond
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
| | - Megan L. Heinrich
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Megan M. Rowland
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Raju Lathigra
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Duane J. Bush
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Broomfield, CO 80045, USA; (D.K.S.N.); (D.J.B.); (I.A.); (W.N.P.)
| | - Irina Aimukanova
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Broomfield, CO 80045, USA; (D.K.S.N.); (D.J.B.); (I.A.); (W.N.P.)
| | - Whitney N. Phinney
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Broomfield, CO 80045, USA; (D.K.S.N.); (D.J.B.); (I.A.); (W.N.P.)
| | - Sophia A. Koval
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Andrew R. Hoffmann
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
| | - Allison R. Smither
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
| | - Antoinette R. Bell-Kareem
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
| | - Lilia I. Melnik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
| | - Kaylynn J. Genemaras
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
- Bioinnovation Program, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Karissa Chao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
- Bioinnovation Program, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Patricia Snarski
- Heart and Vascular Institute, John W. Deming Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Alexandra B. Melton
- Department of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA;
| | - Jaikin E. Harrell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
| | - Ashley A. Smira
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.A.S.); (D.H.E.); (J.A.R.); (J.S.S.); (J.E.R.)
| | - Debra H. Elliott
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.A.S.); (D.H.E.); (J.A.R.); (J.S.S.); (J.E.R.)
| | - Julie A. Rouelle
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.A.S.); (D.H.E.); (J.A.R.); (J.S.S.); (J.E.R.)
| | - Gilberto Sabino-Santos
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
- Centre for Virology Research, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Arnaud C. Drouin
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.C.D.); (D.N.F.)
| | - Mambu Momoh
- Eastern Polytechnic Institute, Kenema, Sierra Leone;
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
- Ministry of Health and Sanitation, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - John Demby Sandi
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Augustine Goba
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Robert J. Samuels
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Lansana Kanneh
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Michael Gbakie
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Zoe L. Branco
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Jeffrey G. Shaffer
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
| | - John S. Schieffelin
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.A.S.); (D.H.E.); (J.A.R.); (J.S.S.); (J.E.R.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - James E. Robinson
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.A.S.); (D.H.E.); (J.A.R.); (J.S.S.); (J.E.R.)
| | - Dahlene N. Fusco
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.C.D.); (D.N.F.)
| | - Pardis C. Sabeti
- Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA;
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Massachusetts Consortium on Pathogen Readiness, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kristian G. Andersen
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA;
- Scripps Research Translational Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Donald S. Grant
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone; (J.D.S.); (A.G.); (R.J.S.); (L.K.); (M.G.)
- Ministry of Health and Sanitation, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Matthew L. Boisen
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Broomfield, CO 80045, USA; (D.K.S.N.); (D.J.B.); (I.A.); (W.N.P.)
| | - Luis M. Branco
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
| | - Robert F. Garry
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Germantown, MD 20876, USA; (R.B.); (A.P.K.); (M.L.H.); (M.M.R.); (R.L.); (S.A.K.); (Z.L.B.)
- Zalgen Labs, LCC, Broomfield, CO 80045, USA; (D.K.S.N.); (D.J.B.); (I.A.); (W.N.P.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (N.G.B.); (A.R.H.); (A.R.S.); (A.R.B.-K.); (L.I.M.); (K.J.G.); (K.C.); (J.E.H.)
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Robinson JE, Hastie KM, Cross RW, Yenni RE, Elliott DH, Rouelle JA, Kannadka CB, Smira AA, Garry CE, Bradley BT, Yu H, Shaffer JG, Boisen ML, Hartnett JN, Zandonatti MA, Rowland MM, Heinrich ML, Martínez-Sobrido L, Cheng B, de la Torre JC, Andersen KG, Goba A, Momoh M, Fullah M, Gbakie M, Kanneh L, Koroma VJ, Fonnie R, Jalloh SC, Kargbo B, Vandi MA, Gbetuwa M, Ikponmwosa O, Asogun DA, Okokhere PO, Follarin OA, Schieffelin JS, Pitts KR, Geisbert JB, Kulakoski PC, Wilson RB, Happi CT, Sabeti PC, Gevao SM, Khan SH, Grant DS, Geisbert TW, Saphire EO, Branco LM, Garry RF. Most neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies target novel epitopes requiring both Lassa virus glycoprotein subunits. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11544. [PMID: 27161536 PMCID: PMC4866400 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Lassa fever is a severe multisystem disease that often has haemorrhagic manifestations. The epitopes of the Lassa virus (LASV) surface glycoproteins recognized by naturally infected human hosts have not been identified or characterized. Here we have cloned 113 human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for LASV glycoproteins from memory B cells of Lassa fever survivors from West Africa. One-half bind the GP2 fusion subunit, one-fourth recognize the GP1 receptor-binding subunit and the remaining fourth are specific for the assembled glycoprotein complex, requiring both GP1 and GP2 subunits for recognition. Notably, of the 16 mAbs that neutralize LASV, 13 require the assembled glycoprotein complex for binding, while the remaining 3 require GP1 only. Compared with non-neutralizing mAbs, neutralizing mAbs have higher binding affinities and greater divergence from germline progenitors. Some mAbs potently neutralize all four LASV lineages. These insights from LASV human mAb characterization will guide strategies for immunotherapeutic development and vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Robinson
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Kathryn M Hastie
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Robert W Cross
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA
| | - Rachael E Yenni
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Deborah H Elliott
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Julie A Rouelle
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Chandrika B Kannadka
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Ashley A Smira
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Courtney E Garry
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA.,Autoimmune Technologies, LLC, 1010 Common St #1705, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Benjamin T Bradley
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Haini Yu
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Jeffrey G Shaffer
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Matt L Boisen
- Corgenix, Inc., 11575 Main Street #400, Broomfield, Colorado 80020, USA
| | - Jessica N Hartnett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Michelle A Zandonatti
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Megan M Rowland
- Zalgen Labs, LLC, 20271 Goldenrod Lane, Suite 2083, Germantown, Maryland 20876, USA
| | - Megan L Heinrich
- Zalgen Labs, LLC, 20271 Goldenrod Lane, Suite 2083, Germantown, Maryland 20876, USA
| | - Luis Martínez-Sobrido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - Benson Cheng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - Juan C de la Torre
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Kristian G Andersen
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Augustine Goba
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Mambu Momoh
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone.,Department of Laboratory Sciences Polytechnic College, 2 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Mohamed Fullah
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone.,Department of Laboratory Sciences Polytechnic College, 2 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Michael Gbakie
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Lansana Kanneh
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Veronica J Koroma
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Richard Fonnie
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Simbirie C Jalloh
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone
| | - Brima Kargbo
- Ministry of Health and Sanitation, 4th Floor Youyi Building, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Mohamed A Vandi
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone.,Ministry of Health and Sanitation, 4th Floor Youyi Building, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Momoh Gbetuwa
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone.,Ministry of Health and Sanitation, 4th Floor Youyi Building, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Odia Ikponmwosa
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Lassa Fever Research and Control, Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Km. 87, Benin/Auchi Road, Irrua, Nigeria
| | - Danny A Asogun
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Lassa Fever Research and Control, Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Km. 87, Benin/Auchi Road, Irrua, Nigeria
| | - Peter O Okokhere
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Lassa Fever Research and Control, Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Km. 87, Benin/Auchi Road, Irrua, Nigeria
| | - Onikepe A Follarin
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Lassa Fever Research and Control, Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Km. 87, Benin/Auchi Road, Irrua, Nigeria.,Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Redeemer's University, Off Gbongan-Oshogbo Road, Ede, Nigeria.,African Center of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Disease (ACEGID), Redeemer's University, Off Gbongan-Oshogbo Road, Ede, Nigeria
| | - John S Schieffelin
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA.,Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Kelly R Pitts
- Corgenix, Inc., 11575 Main Street #400, Broomfield, Colorado 80020, USA
| | - Joan B Geisbert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA
| | - Peter C Kulakoski
- Autoimmune Technologies, LLC, 1010 Common St #1705, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Russell B Wilson
- Autoimmune Technologies, LLC, 1010 Common St #1705, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | - Christian T Happi
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Lassa Fever Research and Control, Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Km. 87, Benin/Auchi Road, Irrua, Nigeria.,Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Redeemer's University, Off Gbongan-Oshogbo Road, Ede, Nigeria.,African Center of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Disease (ACEGID), Redeemer's University, Off Gbongan-Oshogbo Road, Ede, Nigeria
| | - Pardis C Sabeti
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Center for Systems Biology, Harvard University, 1350 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.,Center for Systems Biology, Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Sahr M Gevao
- Department of Medicine, University of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - S Humarr Khan
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone.,Ministry of Health and Sanitation, 4th Floor Youyi Building, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Donald S Grant
- Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, 1 Combema Road, Kenema, Sierra Leone.,Ministry of Health and Sanitation, 4th Floor Youyi Building, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Thomas W Geisbert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA
| | - Erica Ollmann Saphire
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.,The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Luis M Branco
- Zalgen Labs, LLC, 20271 Goldenrod Lane, Suite 2083, Germantown, Maryland 20876, USA
| | - Robert F Garry
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA.,Zalgen Labs, LLC, 20271 Goldenrod Lane, Suite 2083, Germantown, Maryland 20876, USA
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