Ferrous iron–activatable drug conjugate achieves potent MAPK blockade in KRAS-driven tumors

KRAS mutations drive a quarter of cancer mortality, and most are undruggable. Several inhibitors of the MAPK pathway are FDA approved but poorly tolerated at the doses needed to adequately extinguish RAS/RAF/MAPK signaling in the tumor cell. We found that oncogenic KRAS signaling induced ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) accumulation early in and throughout mutant KRAS-mediated transformation. We converted an FDA-approved MEK inhibitor into a ferrous iron–activatable drug conjugate (FeADC) and achieved potent MAPK blockade in tumor cells while sparing normal tissues. This innovation allowed sustainable, effective treatment of tumor-bearing animals, with tumor-selective drug activation, producing superior systemic tolerability. Ferrous iron accumulation is an exploitable feature of KRAS transformation, and FeADCs hold promise for improving the treatment of KRAS-driven solid tumors.

Surface Proteomics Reveals CD72 as a Target for In Vitro-Evolved Nanobody-Based CAR-T Cells in KMT2A/MLL1-Rearranged B-ALL

Alternative strategies are needed for patients with B-cell malignancy relapsing after CD19-targeted immunotherapy. Here, cell surface proteomics revealed CD72 as an optimal target for poor-prognosis KMT2A/MLL1-rearranged (MLLr) B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL), which we further found to be expressed in other B-cell malignancies. Using a recently described, fully in vitro system, we selected synthetic CD72-specific nanobodies, incorporated them into chimeric antigen receptors (CAR), and demonstrated robust activity against B-cell malignancy models, including CD19 loss. Taking advantage of the role of CD72 in inhibiting B-cell receptor signaling, we found that SHIP1 inhibition increased CD72 surface density. We establish that CD72-nanobody CAR-T cells are a promising therapy for MLLr B-ALL. SIGNIFICANCE: Patients with MLLr B-ALL have poor prognoses despite recent immunotherapy advances. Here, surface proteomics identifies CD72 as being enriched on MLLr B-ALL but also widely expressed across B-cell cancers. We show that a recently described, fully in vitro nanobody platform generates binders highly active in CAR-T cells and demonstrate its broad applicability for immunotherapy development.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1861.

Integrin αvβ8 on T cells suppresses anti-tumor immunity in multiple models and is a promising target for tumor immunotherapy

αvβ8 integrin, a key activator of transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), inhibits anti-tumor immunity. We show that a potent blocking monoclonal antibody against αvβ8 (ADWA-11) causes growth suppression or complete regression in syngeneic models of squamous cell carcinoma, mammary cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer, especially when combined with other immunomodulators or radiotherapy. αvβ8 is expressed at the highest levels in CD4+CD25+ T cells in tumors, and specific deletion of β8 from T cells is as effective as ADWA-11 in suppressing tumor growth. ADWA-11 increases expression of a suite of genes in tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells normally inhibited by TGF-β and involved in tumor cell killing, including granzyme B and interferon-γ. The in vitro cytotoxic effect of tumor CD8 T cells is inhibited by CD4+CD25+ cells, and this suppressive effect is blocked by ADWA-11. These findings solidify αvβ8 integrin as a promising target for cancer immunotherapy.

TGF-β suppresses anti-tumor immunity. Dodagatta-Marri, Ma et al. show that the TGF-β-activating integrin αvβ8 is expressed on CD25+CD4+ tumor T cells and suppresses anti-tumor immunity by CD8+ T cells. Blocking this integrin enhances tumor cell killing and synergizes with multiple immune modulators or radiotherapy to induce long-term anti-tumor immunity.

Potent Activity of an Anti-ICAM1 Antibody-Drug Conjugate against Multiple Myeloma

PURPOSE

New therapies have changed the outlook for patients with multiple myeloma, but novel agents are needed for patients who are refractory or relapsed on currently approved drug classes. Novel targets other than CD38 and BCMA are needed for new immunotherapy development, as resistance to daratumumab and emerging anti-BCMA approaches appears inevitable. One potential target of interest in myeloma is ICAM1. Naked anti-ICAM1 antibodies were active in preclinical models of myeloma and safe in patients, but showed limited clinical efficacy. Here, we sought to achieve improved targeting of multiple myeloma with an anti-ICAM1 antibody-drug conjugate (ADC).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Our anti-ICAM1 human mAb was conjugated to an auristatin derivative, and tested against multiple myeloma cell lines in vitro, orthotopic xenografts in vivo, and patient samples ex vivo. The expression of ICAM1 was also measured by quantitative flow cytometry in patients spanning from diagnosis to the daratumumab-refractory state.

RESULTS

The anti-ICAM1 ADC displayed potent anti-myeloma cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we have verified that ICAM1 is highly expressed on myeloma cells and shown that its expression is further accentuated by the presence of bone marrow microenvironmental factors. In primary samples, ICAM1 is differentially overexpressed on multiple myeloma cells compared with normal cells, including daratumumab-refractory patients with decreased CD38. In addition, ICAM1-ADC showed selective cytotoxicity in multiple myeloma primary samples.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that anti-ICAM1 ADC should be further studied for toxicity, and if safe, tested for clinical efficacy in patients with relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma.

Abstract 1630: FceR1g negative NK-cells (g-NK) enhance antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and in vivo efficacy of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies against hematologic malignanices

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a central component of hematologic malignancy therapy; however, not all patients initially respond to these agents and resistance is a major clinical issue. A major mechanism of action for these mAbs in vivo is NK cell antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Recent studies led to the discovery of a novel subset of human NK cells that lack expression of FceR1g (“g-NK cells”) and have a multi-fold increase in ADCC activity after CD16 crosslinking. Here, we validate the potency of g-NKs as an off-the shelf cellular immunotherapy to enhance the efficacy of therapeutic mAbs.

g-NK cells were enriched and expanded using a proprietary method from CMV-positive blood donors selected for high levels of circulating g-NKs. For ADCC cytotoxicity assays, expanded NK cells were sorted by flow cytometry into populations of “conventional” NK cells (cNK), adaptive (NKG2C+) NK cells, and g-NK cells. After sorting, NK-cells were co-cultured 4 hr at 37° C with Raji or MM.1S target cells (1e4 cells) at varying NK-cell:target cell ratios. For in vivo persistence studies a single dose of 1e7 g-NK or cNK cells was injected into NOD scid gamma (NSG) mice. For in vivo efficacy studies with rituximab (RIT), NSG mice were inoculated with 5e5 luciferase-labeled Raji lymphoma cells and dosed weekly with 15e6 g-NK cells +/-200 ug RIT or vehicle. For in vivo efficacy studies with daratumumab (DARA) and elotuzumab (ELO), NSG mice were inoculated with 1e6 luciferase-labeled MM.1S cells and dosed every 6d with expanded g-NKs (20e6), resting cNKs (3e5, equivalent to physiological levels of NK cells/kg in humans, and +/- 10 ug DARA or 10 ug ELO. In all studies, mice received IL-15 intraperitoneally every 3 days.

Our expansion method was able to expand g-NKs from selected CMV-seropositive donors ~800-fold (n=8). By flow cytometry we found an increase in the percentage of g-NK from 28% of NK cells at input to 82% post-expansion. In vitro ADCC assays demonstrated that g-NKs enhanced cytotoxicity of RIT to Raji cells (70% at 1:1 E:T) when compared to both NKG2C+ NKs (29%) and cNKs (27%) (p<0.001). Notably, we saw similar ADCC of g-NK cells whether used fresh or thawed after viable freezing (70% vs. 63%, p=0.71). In addition, g-NK cells enhanced cytotoxicity of DARA and ELO to MM.1S cells (58% and 54% at 1:1 E:T) when compared to cNK (14% and 12% at 1:1 E:T) (p<0.001). We confirmed in NSG mice that g-NK persistence was markedly improved (>90%) over cNKs in blood at multiple time points (p<0.001), and spleen at Day 22 (p<0.001). Efficacy studies using Raji cells showed the combination of g-NK and RIT led to a >90% reduction in tumor burden versus RIT alone (p<0.001). Evaluation of expanded g-NKs in a disseminated orthotopic xenograft model of multiple myeloma found a dramatic reduction (>70%) in tumor burden with DARA+g-NK vs. DARA alone or DARA+cNK (p<0.001). Similar results were found with ELO.

Here we demonstrate that adoptive transfer of expanded g-NK cells markedly enhances anti-tumor ADCC of therapeutic mAbs in several preclinical models. Importantly, because adoptive transfer of NK-cells in humans does not result in severe graft-versus-host disease, we propose that this long-lived, highly potent NK-cell therapy could be administered in an “off-the-shelf” manner to supercharge mAb efficacy.

Citation Format: Austin Basil Bigley, Nadia H. Agha, Shanae Spade, Gaetano Dipierro, Ronald Martell, Byron C. Hann, Nina Shah, Arun P. Wiita. FceR1g negative NK-cells (g-NK) enhance antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and in vivo efficacy of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies against hematologic malignanices [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 1630.

Abstract B023: A reversible SRC-relayed COX2-inflammatory program drives therapeutic resistance in BRAF(V600E) colorectal tumors

Metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) harboring a BRAF(V600E) mutation is associated with poor prognosis and limited treatment options. Clinical trials targeting BRAF with MEK ± EGFR in 2- and 3-drug combinatorial therapy regimens have produced modest response rates and progression-free survival, with early development of resistance in most patients. Considerable efforts to study the mutational landscape or gene expression profiles or synthetic lethal genetic interactions of BRAF(V600E) mCRC have remained relatively ineffective at pinpointing novel therapeutic susceptibilities. This suggests that intrinsic resistance of BRAF(V600E) mCRC to combinatorial treatments is not driven by individual genetic dependencies, but is rather mediated by the concerted upregulation of multiple, parallel signaling pathways that cooperate to circumvent therapeutic effectiveness. To characterize which signaling circuits are rewired by BRAF and EGFR-targeted therapy, we used our new high throughput kinase activity mapping (HT-KAM) platform (Coppé et al 2019 Nature Cell Biology), which can reveal druggable kinase dependencies in cancer cell lines and tumor biospecimens by directly measuring the phospho-catalytic activity of kinases using their biological peptide targets as phospho-sensors. Out of the concerted, reprogrammed kinase circuits we identified with HT-KAM, we found a highly conserved, cell-autonomous, SRC kinases-relayed, COX2-PGE2-GNAS-driven inflammatory program that functions independently of the commonly studied BRAF-MEK-ERK / EGFR / PDPK1-AKT1 pathways. Specifically, we found that SRC family kinases are catalytically activated upon single and combination treatment with BRAF ± MEK ± EGFR inhibitors. We validated the specificity and potency of this BRAF/EGFR-independent vulnerability using genetic interventions (via shRNA or CRISPR) and drug treatments (adding dasatinib or saracatinib) in cell survival and colony formation assays across >15 BRAF(V600E) cell lines, and in patient tumor-derived xenograft (PDX) mouse models. Immunohistochemistry performed on patient tumors resistant to targeted therapies, and on residual PDX tumors after BRAF and MEK treatments, further reiterated SRC activation. Mechanistically, the activation of SRC kinases was induced by an autocrine PGE2-regulated GNAS-activation loop that COX2-inhibitors celecoxib or valdecoxib reversed both in vitro and in vivo. In PDX models, addition of celecoxib significantly improved tumor growth inhibition, and systematically outperformed 2- and 3-drug targeted therapy regimens tested in clinical trials without increasing toxicity (manuscript in preparation). In conclusion, we demonstrate that SRC-signaling is at the nexus of an autonomous inflammatory program with pro-tumorigenic activities, which may explain why BRAF(V600E) colorectal tumors develop resistance to current therapies. Moreover, targeting COX2 presents a promising new clinical strategy to restore therapeutic sensitivity in patients.

Citation Format: Chloe E Atreya, Ana Ruiz-Saenz, Changjun Wang, Bo Pan, Courtney A Dreyer, Diede Brunen, Anirudh Prahallad, Danislav Spassov, Dana J Steffen, Byron C Hann, Scott R VandenBerg, Silvio Gutkind, Mark M Moasser, Laura J van 't Veer, Jean-Philippe Coppe. A reversible SRC-relayed COX2-inflammatory program drives therapeutic resistance in BRAF(V600E) colorectal tumors [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR-NCI-EORTC International Conference on Molecular Targets and Cancer Therapeutics; 2019 Oct 26-30; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Mol Cancer Ther 2019;18(12 Suppl):Abstract nr B023. doi:10.1158/1535-7163.TARG-19-B023

Antibody-Drug Conjugates Targeting the Urokinase Receptor (uPAR) as a Possible Treatment of Aggressive Breast Cancer

A promising molecular target for aggressive cancers is the urokinase receptor (uPAR). A fully human, recombinant antibody that binds uPAR to form a stable complex that blocks uPA-uPAR interactions (2G10) and is internalized primarily through endocytosis showed efficacy in a mouse xenograft model of highly aggressive, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) of 2G10 were designed and produced bearing tubulin inhibitor payloads ligated through seven different linkers. Aldehyde tag technology was employed for linking, and either one or two tags were inserted into the antibody heavy chain, to produce site-specifically conjugated ADCs with drug-to-antibody ratios of either two or four. Both cleavable and non-cleavable linkers were combined with two different antimitotic toxins—MMAE (monomethylauristatin E) and maytansine. Nine different 2G10 ADCs were produced and tested for their ability to target uPAR in cell-based assays and a mouse model. The anti-uPAR ADC that resulted in tumor regression comprised an MMAE payload with a cathepsin B cleavable linker, 2G10-RED-244-MMAE. This work demonstrates in vitro activity of the 2G10-RED-244-MMAE in TNBC cell lines and validates uPAR as a therapeutic target for TNBC.

α-PD-1 therapy elevates Treg/Th balance and increases tumor cell pSmad3 that are both targeted by α-TGFβ antibody to promote durable rejection and immunity in squamous cell carcinomas

BACKGROUND

Checkpoint blockade immunotherapy has improved metastatic cancer patient survival, but response rates remain low. There is an unmet need to identify mechanisms and tools to circumvent resistance. In human patients, responses to checkpoint blockade therapy correlate with tumor mutation load, and intrinsic resistance associates with pre-treatment signatures of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), immunosuppression, macrophage chemotaxis and TGFβ signaling.

METHODS

To facilitate studies on mechanisms of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) evasion of checkpoint blockade immunotherapy, we sought to develop a novel panel of murine syngeneic SCC lines reflecting the heterogeneity of human cancer and its responses to immunotherapy. We characterized six Kras-driven cutaneous SCC lines with a range of mutation loads. Following implantation into syngeneic FVB mice, we examined multiple tumor responses to α-PD-1, α-TGFβ or combinatorial therapy, including tumor growth rate and regression, tumor immune cell composition, acquired tumor immunity, and the role of cytotoxic T cells and Tregs in immunotherapy responses.

RESULTS

We show that α-PD-1 therapy is ineffective in establishing complete regression (CR) of tumors in all six SCC lines, but causes partial tumor growth inhibition of two lines with the highest mutations loads, CCK168 and CCK169. α-TGFβ monotherapy results in 20% CR and 10% CR of established CCK168 and CCK169 tumors respectively, together with acquisition of long-term anti-tumor immunity. α-PD-1 synergizes with α-TGFβ, increasing CR rates to 60% (CCK168) and 20% (CCK169). α-PD-1 therapy enhances CD4 + Treg/CD4 + Th ratios and increases tumor cell pSmad3 expression in CCK168 SCCs, whereas α-TGFβ antibody administration attenuates these effects. We show that α-TGFβ acts in part through suppressing immunosuppressive Tregs induced by α-PD-1, that limit the anti-tumor activity of α-PD-1 monotherapy. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo, α-TGFβ acts directly on the tumor cell to attenuate EMT, to activate a program of gene expression that stimulates immuno-surveillance, including up regulation of genes encoding the tumor cell antigen presentation machinery.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that α-PD-1 not only initiates a tumor rejection program, but can induce a competing TGFβ-driven immuno-suppressive program. We identify new opportunities for α-PD-1/α-TGFβ combinatorial treatment of SCCs especially those with a high mutation load, high CD4+ T cell content and pSmad3 signaling. Our data form the basis for clinical trial of α-TGFβ/α-PD-1 combination therapy (NCT02947165).

Targeting CD46 for both adenocarcinoma and neuroendocrine prostate cancer

Although initially responsive to androgen signaling inhibitors (ASIs), metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) inevitably develops and is incurable. In addition to adenocarcinoma (adeno), neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) emerges to confer ASI resistance. We have previously combined laser capture microdissection and phage antibody display library selection on human cancer specimens and identified novel internalizing antibodies binding to tumor cells residing in their tissue microenvironment. We identified the target antigen for one of these antibodies as CD46, a multifunctional protein that is best known for negatively regulating the innate immune system. CD46 is overexpressed in primary tumor tissue and CRPC (localized and metastatic; adeno and NEPC), but expressed at low levels on normal tissues except for placental trophoblasts and prostate epithelium. Abiraterone- and enzalutamide-treated mCRPC cells upregulate cell surface CD46 expression. Genomic analysis showed that the CD46 gene is gained in 45% abiraterone-resistant mCRPC patients. We conjugated a tubulin inhibitor to our macropinocytosing anti-CD46 antibody and showed that the resulting antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) potently and selectively kills both adeno and NEPC cell lines in vitro (sub-nM EC50) but not normal cells. CD46 ADC regressed and eliminated an mCRPC cell line xenograft in vivo in both subcutaneous and intrafemoral models. Exploratory toxicology studies of the CD46 ADC in non-human primates demonstrated an acceptable safety profile. Thus, CD46 is an excellent target for antibody-based therapy development, which has potential to be applicable to both adenocarcinoma and neuroendocrine types of mCRPC that are resistant to current treatment.

Repurposing tofacitinib as an anti-myeloma therapeutic to reverse growth-promoting effects of the bone marrow microenvironment

The myeloma bone marrow microenvironment promotes proliferation of malignant plasma cells and resistance to therapy. Activation of JAK/STAT signaling is thought to be a central component of these microenvironment-induced phenotypes. In a prior drug repurposing screen, we identified tofacitinib, a pan-JAK inhibitor Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for rheumatoid arthritis, as an agent that may reverse the tumor-stimulating effects of bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells. Herein, we validated in vitro, in stromal-responsive human myeloma cell lines, and in vivo, in orthotopic disseminated xenograft models of myeloma, that tofacitinib showed efficacy in myeloma models. Furthermore, tofacitinib strongly synergized with venetoclax in coculture with bone marrow stromal cells but not in monoculture. Surprisingly, we found that ruxolitinib, an FDA approved agent targeting JAK1 and JAK2, did not lead to the same anti-myeloma effects. Combination with a novel irreversible JAK3-selective inhibitor also did not enhance ruxolitinib effects. Transcriptome analysis and unbiased phosphoproteomics revealed that bone marrow stromal cells stimulate a JAK/STAT-mediated proliferative program in myeloma cells, and tofacitinib reversed the large majority of these pro-growth signals. Taken together, our results suggest that tofacitinib reverses the growth-promoting effects of the tumor microenvironment. As tofacitinib is already FDA approved, these results can be rapidly translated into potential clinical benefits for myeloma patients.

Antibody-drug conjugate targeting CD46 eliminates multiple myeloma cells

Multiple myeloma is incurable by standard approaches because of inevitable relapse and development of treatment resistance in all patients. In our prior work, we identified a panel of macropinocytosing human monoclonal antibodies against CD46, a negative regulator of the innate immune system, and constructed antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). In this report, we show that an anti-CD46 ADC (CD46-ADC) potently inhibited proliferation in myeloma cell lines with little effect on normal cells. CD46-ADC also potently eliminated myeloma growth in orthometastatic xenograft models. In primary myeloma cells derived from bone marrow aspirates, CD46-ADC induced apoptosis and cell death, but did not affect the viability of nontumor mononuclear cells. It is of clinical interest that the CD46 gene resides on chromosome 1q, which undergoes genomic amplification in the majority of relapsed myeloma patients. We found that the cell surface expression level of CD46 was markedly higher in patient myeloma cells with 1q gain than in those with normal 1q copy number. Thus, genomic amplification of CD46 may serve as a surrogate for target amplification that could allow patient stratification for tailored CD46-targeted therapy. Overall, these findings indicate that CD46 is a promising target for antibody-based treatment of multiple myeloma, especially in patients with gain of chromosome 1q.

Tumor detection by imaging proteolytic activity

The cell surface protease membrane-type serine protease-1 (MT-SP1), also known as matriptase, is often upregulated in epithelial cancers. We hypothesized that dysregulation of MT-SP1 with regard to its cognate inhibitor hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor-1 (HAI-1), a situation that increases proteolytic activity, might be exploited for imaging purposes to differentiate malignant from normal tissue. In this study, we show that MT-SP1 is active on cancer cells and that its activity may be targeted in vivo for tumor detection. A proteolytic activity assay with several MT-SP1-positive human cancer cell lines showed that MT-SP1 antibodies that inhibit recombinant enzyme activity in vitro also bind and inhibit the full-length enzyme expressed on cells. In contrast, in the same assay, MT-SP1-negative cancer cell lines were inactive. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the cell surface localization of labeled antibodies bound to MT-SP1-positive cells. To evaluate in vivo targeting capability, 0.7 to 2 nmoles of fluorescently labeled antibodies were administered to mice bearing tumors that were positive or negative for MT-SP1. Antibodies localized to MT-SP1-positive tumors (n = 3), permitting visualization of MT-SP1 activity, whereas MT-SP1-negative tumors (n = 2) were not visualized. Our findings define MT-SP1 activity as a useful biomarker to visualize epithelial cancers using a noninvasive antibody-based method.

MRI methods for evaluating the effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitor administration used to enhance chemotherapy efficiency in a breast tumor xenograft model

PURPOSE

To evaluate whether quantitative MRI parameters are sensitive to the effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib and can discriminate between two different treatment protocols.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Untreated mice with BT474 breast tumor xenografts were characterized in a preliminary study. Subsequently, tumor volume, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), transendothelial permeability (K(ps)), and fractional plasma volume (fPV) were measured in three groups of mice receiving: 1) control vehicle for 10 days, or gefitinib as 2) a single daily dose for 10 days or 3) a 2-day pulsed dose.

RESULTS

Gefitinib treatment resulted in significant tumor growth inhibition (pulsed: 439 +/- 93; daily: 404 +/- 53; control: 891 +/- 174 mm(3), P < 0.050) and lower cell density (pulsed: 0.15 +/- 0.01, daily: 0.17 +/- 0.01, control: 0.24 +/- 0.01, P < 0.050) after 9 days. Tumor ADC increased in treated groups but decreased in controls (P > 0.050). Tumor K(ps) decreased with pulsed treatment but rebounded afterwards and increased with daily treatment (P > 0.050). Tumor fPV increased in both treated groups, decreasing afterwards with pulsed treatment (P > 0.050).

CONCLUSION

Quantitative MRI can provide a sensitive measure of gefitinib-induced tumor changes, potentially distinguish between treatment regimens, and may be useful for determining optimal treatment scheduling for enhancing chemotherapy delivery.

Loss of p14ARF in tumor cells facilitates replication of the adenovirus mutant dl1520 (ONYX-015)

The adenovirus mutant dl1520 (ONYX-015) does not express the E1B-55K protein that binds and inactivates p53. This virus replicates in tumor cells with mutant p53, but not in normal cells with functional p53. Although intra-tumoral injection of dl1520 shows promising responses in patients with solid tumors, previous in vitro studies have not established a close correlation between p53 status and dl1520 replication. Here we identify loss of p14ARF as a mechanism that allows dl1520 replication in tumor cells retaining wild-type p53. We demonstrate that the re-introduction of p14ARF into tumor cells with wild-type p53 suppresses replication of dl1520 in a p53-dependent manner. Our study supports the therapeutic use of dl1520 in tumors with lesions within the p53 pathway other than mutation of p53.

Purification and DNA binding properties of the ataxia-telangiectasia gene product ATM

The human neurodegenerative and cancer predisposition condition ataxia-telangiectasia is characterized at the cellular level by radiosensitivity, chromosomal instability, and impaired induction of ionizing radiation-induced cell cycle checkpoint controls. Recent work has revealed that the gene defective in ataxia-telangiectasia, termed ATM, encodes an approximately 350-kDa polypeptide, ATM, that is a member of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase family. We show that ATM binds DNA and exploit this to purify ATM to near homogeneity. Atomic force microscopy reveals that ATM exists in two populations, with sizes consistent with monomeric and tetrameric states. Atomic force microscopy analyses also show that ATM binds preferentially to DNA ends. This property is similar to that displayed by the DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase family member that functions in DNA damage detection in conjunction with the DNA end-binding protein Ku. Furthermore, purified ATM contains a kinase activity that phosphorylates serine-15 of p53 in a DNA-stimulated manner. These results provide a biochemical assay system for ATM, support genetic data indicating distinct roles for DNA-dependent protein kinase and ATM, and suggest how ATM may signal the presence of DNA damage to p53 and other downstream effectors.

The ataxia-telangiectasia related protein ATR mediates DNA-dependent phosphorylation of p53

Levels of the tumour suppressor protein p53 are increased in response to a variety of DNA damaging agents. DNA damage-induced phosphorylation of p53 occurs at serine-15 in vivo. Phosphorylation of p53 at serine-15 leads to a stabilization of the polypeptide by inhibiting its interaction with Mdm2, a protein that targets p53 for ubiquitin-dependent degradation. However, the mechanisms by which DNA damage is signalled to p53 remain unclear. Here, we report the identification of a novel DNA-activated protein kinase that phosphorylates p53 on serine-15. Fractionation of HeLa nuclear extracts and biochemical analyses indicate that this kinase is distinct from the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) and corresponds to the human cell cycle checkpoint protein ATR. Immunoprecipitation studies of recombinant ATR reveal that catalytic activity of this polypeptide is required for DNA-stimulated phosphorylation of p53 on serine-15. These data suggest that ATR may function upstream of p53 in a signal transduction cascade initiated upon DNA damage and provide a biochemical assay system for ATR activity.

Subunits of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae signal recognition particle required for its functional expression

The signal recognition particle (SRP) is an evolutionarily conserved ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex that functions in protein targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. Only two protein subunits of the SRP, Srp54p and Sec65p, and the RNA subunit, scR1, were previously known in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Purification of yeast SRP by immunoaffinity chromatography revealed five additional proteins. Amino acid sequencing and cloning of the genes encoding four of these proteins demonstrated that the yeast SRP contains homologs (termed Srp14p, Srp68p and Srp72p) of the SRP14, SRP68 and SRP72 subunits found in mammalian SRP. The yeast SRP also contains a 21 kDa protein (termed Srp21p) that is not homologous to any protein in mammalian SRP. An additional 7 kDa protein may correspond to the mammalian SRP9. Disruption of any one of the four genes encoding the newly identified SRP proteins results in slow cell growth and inefficient protein translocation across the ER membrane. These phenotypes are indistinguishable from those resulting from the disruption of genes encoding SRP components identified previously. These data indicate that a lack of any of the analyzed SRP components results in loss of SRP function. ScR1 RNA and SRP proteins are at reduced levels in cells lacking any one of the newly identified proteins. In contrast, SRP components are present at near wild type levels and SRP subparticles are present in cells lacking either Srp54p or Sec65p. Thus Srp14p, Srp21p, Srp68p and Srp72p, but not Sec65p or Srp54p, are required for stable expression of the yeast SRP.

SEC65 gene product is a subunit of the yeast signal recognition particle required for its integrity

Protein targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in mammalian cells is catalysed by the signal recognition particle (SRP), which consists of six protein subunits and an RNA subunit. Saccharomyces cerevisiae SRP is a 16S particle, of which only two subunits have been identified: a protein subunit, SRP54p, which is homologous to the mammalian SRP54 subunit, and an RNA subunit, scR1 (ref. 3). The sec65-1 mutant yeast cells are temperature-sensitive for growth and defective in the translocation of several secreted and membrane-bound proteins. The DNA sequence of the SEC65 gene suggests that its product is related to mammalian SRP19 subunit and may have a similar function. Here we show that SEC65p is a subunit of the S. cerevisiae SRP and that it is required for the stable association of another subunit, SRP54p, with SRP. Overexpression of SRP54p suppresses both growth and protein translocation defects in sec65-1 mutant cells.

The signal recognition particle in S. cerevisiae

We have identified the Saccharomyces cerevisiae homolog of the signal recognition particle (SRP) and characterized its function in vivo. S. cerevisiae SRP is a 16S particle that includes a homolog of the signal sequence-binding protein subunit of SRP (SRP54p) and a small cytoplasmic RNA (scR1). Surprisingly, the genes encoding scR1 and SRP54p are not essential for growth, though SRP-deficient cells grow poorly, suggesting that SRP function can be partially by-passed in vivo. Protein translocation across the ER membrane is impaired in SRP-deficient cells, indicating that yeast SRP, like its mammalian counterpart, functions in this process. Unexpectedly, the degree of the translocation defect varies for different proteins. The ability of some proteins to be efficiently targeted in SRP-deficient cells may explain why previous genetic and biochemical analyses in yeast and bacteria did not reveal components of the SRP-dependent protein targeting pathway.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe contain a homologue to the 54-kD subunit of the signal recognition particle that in S. cerevisiae is essential for growth

We have isolated and sequenced genes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SRP54SC) and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (SRP54sp) encoding proteins homologous to both the 54-kD protein subunit (SRP54mam) of the mammalian signal recognition particle (SRP) and the product of a gene of unknown function in Escherichia coli, ffh (Römisch, K., J. Webb, J. Herz, S. Prehn, R. Frank, M. Vingron, and B. Dobberstein. 1989. Nature (Lond.). 340:478-482; Bernstein H. D., M. A. Poritz, K. Strub, P. J. Hoben, S. Brenner, P. Walter. 1989. Nature (Lond.). 340:482-486). To accomplish this we took advantage of short stretches of conserved sequence between ffh and SRP54mam and used the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify fragments of the homologous yeast genes. The DNA sequences predict proteins for SRP54sc and SRP54sp that are 47% and 52% identical to SRP54mam, respectively. Like SRP54mam and ffh, both predicted yeast proteins contain a GTP binding consensus sequence in their NH2-terminal half (G-domain), and methionine-rich sequences in their COOH-terminal half (M-domain). In contrast to SRP54mam and ffh the yeast proteins contain additional Met-rich sequences inserted at the COOH-terminal portion of the M-domain. SRP54sp contains a 480-nucleotide intron located 78 nucleotides from the 5' end of the open reading frame. Although the function of the yeast homologues is unknown, gene disruption experiments in S. cerevisiae show that the gene is essential for growth. The identification of SRP54sc and SRP54sp provides the first evidence for SRP related proteins in yeast.

Isolation and characterization of a laminin-binding protein from rat and chick muscle

A major laminin-binding protein (LBP), distinct from previously described LBPs, has been isolated from chick and rat skeletal muscle (Mr 56,000 and 66,000, respectively). The purified LBPs from the two species were shown to be related antigenically and to have similar NH2-terminal amino acid sequences and total amino acid compositions. Protein blots using laminin and laminin fragments provided evidence that this LBP interacts with the major heparin-binding domain, E3, of laminin. Studies on the association of this LBP with muscle membrane fractions and reconstituted lipid vesicles indicate that this protein can interact with lipid bilayers and has properties of a peripheral, not an integral membrane protein. These properties are consistent with its amino acid sequence, determined from cDNAs (Clegg et al., 1988). Examination by light and electron microscopy of the LBP antigen distribution in skeletal muscle indicated that the protein is localized primarily extracellularly, near the extracellular matrix and myotube plasmalemma. While a form of this LBP has been identified in heart muscle, it is present at low or undetectable levels in other tissues examined by immunocytochemistry indicating that it is probably a muscle-specific protein. As this protein is localized extracellularly and can bind to both membranes and laminin, it may mediate myotube interactions with the extracellular matrix.

Amino acid sequence and distribution of mRNA encoding a major skeletal muscle laminin binding protein: an extracellular matrix-associated protein with an unusual COOH-terminal polyaspartate domain

Two cDNAs encoding an abundant chicken muscle extracellular matrix (ECM)-associated laminin-binding protein (LBP) have been isolated and sequenced. The predicted primary amino acid sequence includes a probable signal peptide and a site for N-linked glycosylation, but lacks a hydrophobic segment long enough to span the membrane. The COOH terminus consists of an unusual repeat of 33 consecutive aspartate residues. Comparison with other sequences indicates that this protein is different from previously described LBPs and ECM receptors. RNA blot analysis of LBP gene expression showed that LBP mRNA was abundant in skeletal and heart muscle, but barely detectable in other tissues. Blots of chicken genomic DNA suggest that a single gene encodes this LBP. The amino acid sequence and mRNA distribution are consistent with the biochemical characterization described by Hall and co-workers (Hall, D. E., K. A. Frazer, B. C. Hahn, and L. F. Reichardt. 1988. J. Cell Biol. 107:687-697). These analyses indicate that LBP is an abundant ECM-associated muscle protein with an unusually high negative charge that interacts with both membranes and laminin, and has properties of a peripheral, not integral membrane protein. Taken together, our studies show that muscle LBP is a secreted, peripheral membrane protein with an unusual polyaspartate domain. Its laminin and membrane binding properties suggest that it may help mediate muscle cell interactions with the extracellular matrix. We propose the name "aspartactin" for this LBP.