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Berger CEH, Kruijver M, Hicks T, Champod C, Taylor D, Buckleton J. Commentary on: Hahn M, Anslinger K, Eckert M, Fimmers R, Grethe S, Hohoff C, et al. [Joint recommendations of the project group "Biostatistical DNA Calculations" and the Trace Commission on the Biostatistical Evaluation of Forensic DNA Analytical Findings with Fully Continuous Models (FCM)]. Rechtsmedizin (Berl). 2023; 33(1):3-12. doi: 10.1007/s00194-022-00599-5. J Forensic Sci 2024; 69:730-735. [PMID: 37986638 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, The Netherlands
- Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten Kruijver
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tacha Hicks
- Forensic Genetics Unit, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne-Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Fondation pour la Formation Continue Universitaire Lausannoise (UNIL-EPFL) & School of Criminal Justice, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Champod
- Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice and Public Administration, School of Criminal Justice, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Duncan Taylor
- Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - John Buckleton
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Statistics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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2
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de Boer HH, Fronczek J, Berger CEH, Sjerps M. The logic of forensic pathology opinion. Int J Legal Med 2022; 136:1027-1036. [PMID: 34988615 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-021-02754-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Evaluating evidence and providing opinions are at the heart of forensic science, and forensic experts are expected to provide opinions that are based on logically sound and transparent scientific reasoning, and that honour the boundaries of their area of expertise. In order to meet these objectives, many fields of science explicitly apply Bayes' theorem, which describes the logically correct way to update probabilities on the basis of observations. Making a distinction between 'investigative' and evaluative' modes of operating helps to implement the theorem into daily casework. Use of these principles promotes the logic and transparency of the reasoning that leads to expert's opinion and helps the expert to stay within her remit. Despite these important benefits, forensic pathology seems slow to adopt these principles. In this article, we explore this issue and suggest a way forward. We start with a short introduction to Bayes' theorem and its benefits, followed by a discussion of why its application is actually second nature to medical practitioners. We then discuss the difference between investigative and evaluative opinions, and how they enable the forensic pathologist to reconcile Bayes' theorem with the different phases of a forensic investigation. Throughout the text, practical examples illustrate the various ways in which the logically correct way of evidence interpretation can be implemented, and how it may help the forensic pathologist to provide an appropriate and relevant opinion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H de Boer
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC, 3006, Australia. .,Dept. of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Southbank, VIC, Australia.
| | - Judith Fronczek
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC, 3006, Australia.,Dept. of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Southbank, VIC, Australia
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands.,Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Marjan Sjerps
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands.,Korteweg-de Vries Institute for Mathematics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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3
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de Boer HH, Berger CEH, Blau S. Providing a Forensic Expert Opinion on the "Degree of Force": Evidentiary Considerations. Biology (Basel) 2021; 10:1336. [PMID: 34943251 PMCID: PMC8698358 DOI: 10.3390/biology10121336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Forensic pathologists and anthropologists are often asked in court for an opinion about the degree of force required to cause a specific injury. This paper examines and discusses the concept of 'degree of force' and why it is considered a pertinent issue in legal proceedings. This discussion identifies the implicit assumptions that often underpin questions about the 'degree of force'. The current knowledge base for opinions on the degree of force is then provided by means of a literature review. A critical appraisal of this literature shows that much of the results from experimental research is of limited value in routine casework. An alternative approach to addressing the issue is provided through a discussion of the application of Bayes' theorem, also called the likelihood ratio framework. It is argued that the use of this framework makes it possible for an expert to provide relevant and specific evidence, whilst maintaining the boundaries of their field of expertise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H. de Boer
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine/Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia;
| | - Charles E. H. Berger
- Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9500, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands;
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, Ministry of Justice and Security, Government of The Netherlands, 2511 DP The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Soren Blau
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine/Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia;
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4
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Mattijssen EJAT, Witteman CLM, Berger CEH, Zheng XA, Soons JA, Stoel RD. Firearm examination: Examiner judgments and computer-based comparisons. J Forensic Sci 2020; 66:96-111. [PMID: 32970858 PMCID: PMC7821150 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Forensic firearm examination provides the court of law with information about the source of fired cartridge cases. We assessed the validity of source decisions of a computer-based method and of 73 firearm examiners who compared breechface and firing pin impressions of 48 comparison sets. We also compared the computer-based method's comparison scores with the examiners' degree-of-support judgments and assessed the validity of the latter. The true-positive rate (sensitivity) and true-negative rate (specificity) of the computer-based method (for the comparison of both the breechface and firing pin impressions) were 94.4% and at least 91.7%, respectively. For the examiners, the true-positive rate was at least 95.3% and the true-negative rate was at least 86.2%. The validity of the source decisions improved when the evaluations of breechface and firing pin impressions were combined and for the examiners also when the perceived difficulty of the comparison decreased. The examiners were reluctant to provide source decisions for "difficult" comparisons even though their source decisions were mostly correct. The correlation between the computer-based method's comparison scores and the examiners' degree-of-support judgments was low for the same-source comparisons to negligible for the different-source comparisons. Combining the outcomes of computer-based methods with the judgments of examiners could increase the validity of firearm examinations. The examiners' numerical degree-of-support judgments for their source decisions were not well-calibrated and showed clear signs of overconfidence. We suggest studying the merits of performance feedback to calibrate these judgments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwin J A T Mattijssen
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Cilia L M Witteman
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, The Netherlands.,Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Xiaoyu A Zheng
- Sensor Science Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
| | - Johannes A Soons
- Sensor Science Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
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de Koeijer JA, Sjerps MJ, Vergeer P, Berger CEH. Combining evidence in complex cases - a practical approach to interdisciplinary casework. Sci Justice 2019; 60:20-29. [PMID: 31924285 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2019.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Activity level evaluations, although still a major challenge for many disciplines, bring a wealth of possibilities for a more formal approach to the evaluation of interdisciplinary forensic evidence. This paper proposes a practical methodology for combining evidence from different disciplines within the likelihood ratio framework. Evidence schemes introduced in this paper make the process of combining evidence more insightful and intuitive thereby assisting experts in their interdisciplinairy evaluation and in explaining this process to the courts. When confronted with two opposing scenarios and multiple types of evidence, the likelihood ratio approach allows experts to combine this evidence in a probabilistic manner. Parts of the prosecution and defence scenarios for which forensic science is expected to be informative are identified. For these so called core elements, activity level propositions are formulated. Afterwards evidence schemes are introduced to assist the expert in combining the evidence in a logical manner. Two types of evidence relations are identified: serial and parallel evidence. Practical guidelines are given on how to deal with both types of evidence relations when combining the evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A de Koeijer
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, the Netherlands.
| | - Marjan J Sjerps
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, the Netherlands; University of Amsterdam, Korteweg de Vries Institute for Mathematics, P.O. Box 94248, 1090 GE Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Peter Vergeer
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, the Netherlands
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, the Netherlands; Leiden University, Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, P.O. Box 9520, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands
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6
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Gittelson S, Berger CEH, Jackson G, Evett IW, Champod C, Robertson B, Curran JM, Taylor D, Weir BS, Coble MD, Buckleton JS. A response to "Likelihood ratio as weight of evidence: A closer look" by Lund and Iyer. Forensic Sci Int 2018; 288:e15-e19. [PMID: 29857959 PMCID: PMC7306225 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recently, Lund and Iyer (L&I) raised an argument regarding the use of likelihood ratios in court. In our view, their argument is based on a lack of understanding of the paradigm. L&I argue that the decision maker should not accept the expert's likelihood ratio without further consideration. This is agreed by all parties. In normal practice, there is often considerable and proper exploration in court of the basis for any probabilistic statement. We conclude that L&I argue against a practice that does not exist and which no one advocates. Further we conclude that the most informative summary of evidential weight is the likelihood ratio. We state that this is the summary that should be presented to a court in every scientific assessment of evidential weight with supporting information about how it was constructed and on what it was based.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Gittelson
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Leiden University, Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, P.O. Box 9520, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Graham Jackson
- Advance Forensic Science, St. Andrews, Scotland, UK; School of Science, Engineering and Technology, Abertay University, Dundee, Scotland, UK
| | - Ian W Evett
- Principal Forensic Services Ltd., 34 Southborough Road, Bickley, Bromley, Kent BR1 2EB, UK
| | - Christophe Champod
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice and Public Administration, Université de Lausanne, Batochime - Quartier Sorge, CH-1015 Lausanne-Dorigny, Switzerland
| | | | - James M Curran
- Department of Statistics, University of Auckland, PB 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Duncan Taylor
- Forensic Science South Australia, 21 Divett Place, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia; School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Bruce S Weir
- University of Washington, Department of Biostatistics, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Michael D Coble
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Applied Genetics Group, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States; Center for Human Identification, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107, United States
| | - John S Buckleton
- University of Washington, Department of Biostatistics, Seattle, WA 98195, United States; Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited, Private Bag 92021, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
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Abstract
In this response paper, part of the Virtual Special Issue on "Measuring and Reporting the Precision of Forensic Likelihood Ratios", we further develop our position on likelihood ratios which we described previously in Berger et al. (2016) "The LR does not exist". Our exposition is inspired by an example given in Martire et al. (2016) "On the likelihood of encapsulating all uncertainty", where the consequences of obtaining additional information on the LR were discussed. In their example, two experts use the same data in a different way, and the LRs of these experts change differently when new data are taken into account. Using this example as a starting point we will demonstrate that the probability distribution for the frequency of the characteristic observed in trace and reference material can be used to predict how much an LR will change when new data become available. This distribution can thus be useful for such a sensitivity analysis, and address the question of whether to obtain additional data or not. But it does not change the answer to the original question of how to update one's prior odds based on the evidence, and it does not represent an uncertainty on the likelihood ratio based on the current data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaas Slooten
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands; VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands; Leiden University, Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, P.O. Box 9520, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Evett IW, Berger CEH, Buckleton JS, Champod C, Jackson G. Finding the way forward for forensic science in the US-A commentary on the PCAST report. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 278:16-23. [PMID: 28688344 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 04/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A recent report by the US President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST), (2016) has made a number of recommendations for the future development of forensic science. Whereas we all agree that there is much need for change, we find that the PCAST report recommendations are founded on serious misunderstandings. We explain the traditional forensic paradigms of match and identification and the more recent foundation of the logical approach to evidence evaluation. This forms the groundwork for exposing many sources of confusion in the PCAST report. We explain how the notion of treating the scientist as a black box and the assignment of evidential weight through error rates is overly restrictive and misconceived. Our own view sees inferential logic, the development of calibrated knowledge and understanding of scientists as the core of the advance of the profession.
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Affiliation(s)
- I W Evett
- Principal Forensic Services Ltd., 34 Southborough Road, Bickley, Bromley, Kent, BR1 2EB, United Kingdom.
| | - C E H Berger
- Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Law, Leiden University, PO Box 9520, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - J S Buckleton
- Environmental Science & Research Ltd, Private Bag 92021, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; Department of Statistical Genetics, University of Washington, Box 357232 Seattle, WA 98195-7232, United States
| | - C Champod
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice and Public Administration, Université de Lausanne, Batochime - quartier Sorge, CH-1015 Lausanne-Dorigny, Switzerland
| | - G Jackson
- Abertay University, Dundee, DD1 1HG, United Kingdom
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Stoel RD, Kerkhoff W, Mattijssen EJAT, Berger CEH. Building the research culture in the forensic sciences: Announcement of a double blind testing program. Sci Justice 2016; 56:155-156. [PMID: 27162013 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Reinoud D Stoel
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, PO Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands.
| | - Wim Kerkhoff
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, PO Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Erwin J A T Mattijssen
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, PO Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands; Radboud University Nijmegen, Behavioural Science Institute, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, PO Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands; Leiden University, Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, PO Box 9520, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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10
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Buiskool M, Nijs HGT, Karst WA, Berger CEH. More on the strength of evidence in forensic pathology. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2016; 12:238-9. [PMID: 27020888 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-016-9766-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marijke Buiskool
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Hubert G T Nijs
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter A Karst
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands. .,Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Berger CEH, Vergeer P, Buckleton JS. A more straightforward derivation of the LR for a database search. Forensic Sci Int Genet 2014; 14:156-60. [PMID: 25450786 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2014.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Matching DNA profiles of an accused person and a crime scene trace are one of the most common forms of forensic evidence. A number of years ago the so-called 'DNA controversy' was concerned with how to quantify the value of such evidence. Given its importance, the lack of understanding of such a basic issue was quite surprising and concerning. Deriving the equation for the likelihood ratio of a DNA database match in a much more direct and simple way is the topic of this paper. As it is much easier to follow it is hoped that this derivation will contribute to the understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E H Berger
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, PO Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands; Leiden University, Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, PO Box 9520, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Peter Vergeer
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, PO Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - John S Buckleton
- Environmental Science & Research Ltd., Private Bag 92021, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
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Abstract
The limitations of the examination of indented writing impressions using electrostatic detection are often paper related. Paper types such as glossy paper, paper of high basis weight, and lithography or gravure-printed papers often give rise to problems resulting in a decrease in sensitivity or a lack of detection altogether. In this paper, a novel technique for the examination of indented writing is presented, which is in a sense complimentary to the technique of electrostatic detection as it is especially suitable for glossy-coated and printed paper types and can in some instances also deal with paper types of higher basis weight. Indented writing grooves will normally contain more particles than the surrounding nonindented areas due to damage of the surface layer resulting in a build-up of filler powder. The method presented uses black gelatine lifter slabs to lift the paper dust image off the surface of the paper. This image can quite easily be photographed using near-to-coaxial lighting. The gelatine lifting method outperforms oblique lighting for the detection of indented writing and is almost as sensitive as electrostatic detection if compared on the types of paper where both perform well. The main advantage of this new technique is, however, that it is especially suitable for those types of paper where electrostatic detection fails and is therefore a welcome addition to the range of methods available to a forensic document examiner for the examination of indented writing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A de Koeijer
- Chemistry Department, Document group, Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
In forensic image processing, it is often important to be able to separate a feature from an interfering background or foreground, or to demonstrate colors within an image to be different from each other. In this study, a color deconvolution algorithm that could accomplish this task is described, and it is applied to color separation problems in document and fingerprint examination. Subtle color differences (sometimes invisible to the naked eye) are found to be sufficient, which is demonstrated successfully for several cases where color differences were shown to exist, or where colors were removed from the foreground or background. The software is available for free in the form of an Adobe Photoshop-compatible plug-in.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E H Berger
- Document Group, Chemistry Department, Netherlands Forensic Institute, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E. H. Berger
- Department of Applied Physics, MESA Institute, Bio-interface Group, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands, and Organon Teknika BV/AKZONOBEL, P.O. Box 84, 5280 AB Boxtel, The Netherlands
| | - Tom A. M. Beumer
- Department of Applied Physics, MESA Institute, Bio-interface Group, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands, and Organon Teknika BV/AKZONOBEL, P.O. Box 84, 5280 AB Boxtel, The Netherlands
| | - Rob P. H. Kooyman
- Department of Applied Physics, MESA Institute, Bio-interface Group, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands, and Organon Teknika BV/AKZONOBEL, P.O. Box 84, 5280 AB Boxtel, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Greve
- Department of Applied Physics, MESA Institute, Bio-interface Group, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands, and Organon Teknika BV/AKZONOBEL, P.O. Box 84, 5280 AB Boxtel, The Netherlands
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