Survey of water supply and assessment of groundwater quality in the suburban communes of Selembao and Kimbanseke, Kinshasa in Democratic Republic of the Congo

In many suburban municipalities of developing countries, the household drinking water comes mainly from groundwater including, wells, streams and springs. These sources are vulnerable because poor hygienic conditions and sanitation prevail causing persistence and recurrent waterborne diseases. In this research, a survey study on water resource use and an epidemiological survey of waterborne diseases were conducted among users of water points and medical institutions in suburban communes of Selembao and Kimbanseke (Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo). In addition, physicochemical (temperature, pH, O₂, electrical conductivity, and soluble ions: Na⁺, K⁺, PO₄ ^3-, SO₄ ^2-, NO₃ ^-, NO₂ ^-) and bacteriological (FIB: faecal indicator bacteria) analyses of water from 21 wells and springs were performed according to the seasonal variations. FIB included Escherichia coli (E. coli), Enterococcus and Total Coliforms. The survey results indicate that more than 75% of the patients admitted to local medical institutions between 2016 and 2019 are affected by waterborne diseases, including typhoid fever, amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea, gastroenteritis disorders and cholera. Except for NO₃ ^- in some sites, the water physicochemical parameter values are within WHO permissible limits for drinking/domestic water quality. On the contrary, the results revealed high FIB levels in water from unmanaged wells and springs during rainy and dry seasons. The microbiological pollution was significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Interestingly, no FIB contamination was observed in water samples from managed/developed wells. The results from this study will guide local government decisions on improving water quality to prevent recurrent waterborne diseases.

Occurrence of organic micropollutants and human health risk assessment based on consumption of Amaranthus viridis, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The contamination of water resource and food chain by persistent organic pollutants (POPs) constitutes a major environmental and human health concern worldwide. The aim of this study was to investigate the levels of POPs in irrigation water, soil and in Amaranthus viridis (A. viridis) from different gardening sites in Kinshasa to evaluate the potential environmental and human health risks. A survey study for the use of pesticides and fertilizers was carried out with 740 market gardeners. The levels of POPs (including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)) were analyzed in irrigation water and 144 vegetable samples collected from different gardening sites. The assessment of potential human health risk was estimated by calculating daily intake and toxic equivalency to quantify the carcinogenicity. The results show highest PAH levels in A. viridis from all studied sites. The concentrations of the sum of seven PCBs (Σ7PCB_S) congeners in analyzed plants ranged between 15.89 and 401.36 ng g^-1. The distributions of OCPs in both water and A. viridis were congener specific, chlorpyrifos-ethyl and p,p'-DDE were predominantly detected. Among PBDEs, only BDE47 was quantified with noticeable concentration in A. viridis, while no PBDEs were detected in irrigation water. Higher estimated daily intake values indicate that consuming leafy vegetables might associate with increased human health risks. However, calculated incremental lifetime cancer risk values indicates no potential carcinogenic risk for the local population. The results of this study provide important information on A. viridis contamination by POPs and strongly recommend implementing the appropriate measures to control the use of chemicals used in studied gardening areas. Thus in Kinshasa, urban agriculture control programs for POPs and fertilizers is very important in order to protect the public health through direct and dietary exposure pathways.

Assessment of metal concentrations in oysters and shrimp from Atlantic Coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Oysters and shrimp are abundant and commonly consumed seafood by the indigenous population of the Kongo central region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Literature reviews suggest that no data were available for the metal concentrations in these species. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to determine the metal concentrations in tissues of oysters (Egeria congica) and shrimp (Macrobrachium spp., Parapenaeus spp., Penaeus spp.) collected in November 2017 from the Atlantic Ocean Coast of DRC in the territory of Muanda. Metal levels in the seafood species studied here were put into context using international regulation for human consumption set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), European Union (EU), and World Health Organization (WHO). Our results demonstrated that the concentration of heavy metals varied considerably between sampling sites and analyzed species (P < 0.05), with the values (in mg kg1) ranged between 0.05-0.41, 0.03-2.25, Collapse

Key Words

• Atlantic Ocean
• Bioaccumulation
• Congo DR
• Environmental pollution
• Environmental risk assessment
• Environmental science
• Heavy metal
• Oysters
• Shrimp
• Water pollution
• Water quality

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Affiliation(s)

Robert B. Suami University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, B.P. 212, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Dhafer Mohammed M. Al Salah Department F.-A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences and Institute of Environmental Sciences, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Geneva, Uni Carl Vogt, 66 Boulevard Carl-Vogt, Geneva 4, CH-1211, Switzerland King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Joint Centers of Excellence Program, Prince Turki the 1st Street, Riyadh, 11442, Saudi Arabia
César D. Kabala University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, B.P. 212, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo
J.-P. Otamonga Université Pédagogique Nationale (UPN). Croisement Route de Matadi et Avenue de la Libération. Quartier Binza/UPN, B.P. 8815, Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo
Crispin K. Mulaji University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Pius T. Mpiana University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo
John W. Poté University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo Department F.-A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences and Institute of Environmental Sciences, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Geneva, Uni Carl Vogt, 66 Boulevard Carl-Vogt, Geneva 4, CH-1211, Switzerland Université Pédagogique Nationale (UPN). Croisement Route de Matadi et Avenue de la Libération. Quartier Binza/UPN, B.P. 8815, Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo

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Prevalence of water-related diseases and groundwater (drinking-water) contamination in the suburban municipality of Mont Ngafula, Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

An epidemiological survey conducted among users of water points and medical institutions in the N'djili Kilambu neighborhood of Kinshasa in Democratic Republic of the Congo, indicates that waterborne diseases have already affected more than 60% of the patients admitted to local clinics between 2013 and 2017. In order to raise public and political awareness about this hazardous health issue resulting from the lack of safely managed sanitation systems, this study investigates the microbial quality of drinking water from local water resources. Water samples were collected from nine wells and streams used as drinking sources, and analyzed for Fecal Indicator Bacteria (FIB), including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus, and Total Coliforms. Physicochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, O₂, and soluble ions (Na⁺, K⁺, PO₄^3-, SO₄^2-, NO₃^-, NO₂^-) were also analyzed. Except for NO₃^- and NO₂^-, the average concentrations of the physicochemical parameters and dissolved ions generally meet the guidelines for drinking/domestic water quality. By contrast, the results reveal high levels of FIB in the water samples collected during both dry and wet seasons. The contamination is significantly higher during the wet season compared to dry season, due to increased runoff, open defecation practices, and more frequent overflow of onsite sanitation systems and septic tanks.

High contamination in the areas surrounding abandoned mines and mining activities: An impact assessment of the Dilala, Luilu and Mpingiri Rivers, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Abandoned mines and mining activities constitute important sources of toxic metals and Rare Earth Elements (REEs) affecting surrounding environmental compartments and biota. This study investigates the contamination degree and distribution of toxic metals and REEs in contrasting sediment, soil and plant samples surrounding rivers in the African copperbelt area characterized by the presence of numerous abandoned mines, artisanal and industrial mining activities. ICP-MS results highlighted the highest concentration of Cu, Co and Pb in sediments reaching values of 146,801, 18,434 and 899 mg kg^-1, respectively. In soil, the values of 175,859, 21,134 and 1164 mg kg^-1 were found for Cu, Co and Pb, respectively. These values are much higher than the sediment guidelines for the protection of aquatic life and international soil clean-up standards. Enrichment factor and geoaccumulation index results indicated important contribution of mining activities to the study sites pollution in addition to natural background. Highest metal accumulation in leaves of Phalaris arundinacea L., was observed, reaching values of 34,061, 5050 and 230 mg kg^-1 for Cu, Co, and Pb, respectively. The ∑REE concentration reached values of 2306, 733, 2796 mg kg^-1 in sediment, soil and plant samples, respectively. The above results were combined with geographical information including satellite imagery, hydrography and mining concessions. Maps were produced to present the results in a comprehensive and compelling visual format. The results will be disseminated through an innovative mapping online platform to simplify access to data and to facilitate dialogue between stakeholders.

Accumulation of toxic metals and organic micro-pollutants in sediments from tropical urban rivers, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

The increasing contamination of fresh water resource by toxic metals and Persistence Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a major environmental concern globally. In the present investigation, surface sediments collected from three main rivers named, Makelele, Kalamu and Nsanga, draining through the city of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, were characterized for grain size, organic matter, toxic metals, POPs (including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Furthermore, enrichment factor (EF) and geoaccumulation index (Igeo) were performed to determine metal source and pollution status. The results highlighted high concentration of toxic metals in all sediment samples, reaching the values (mg kg^-1) of 325 (Cu), 549 (Zn), 165 (Pb) and 1.5 (Cd). High values of PCBs and OCPs were detected in sediment samples, e.g. in Makelele river, PCB values ranged from 0.9 to 10.9 with total PCBs (∑7 PCBs × 4.3): 169.3 μg kg^-1; OCPs from 21.6 to 146.8 with ∑OCPs: 270.6 μg kg^-1. The PBDEs concentrations were higher in investigated rivers comparatively with values detected in many rivers from Sub-Saharan Africa. The ΣPAHs value ranged from 22.6 to 1011.9 μg kg^-1. River contamination may be explained by local intense domestic activities, urban and agricultural runoff, industrial and hospital wastewaters discharge into the rivers without prior treatment. This research provides not only a first baseline information on the extent of contamination in this tropical ecosystem but also represents useful tools incorporated to evaluate sediment quality in the river receiving systems which can be applied to similar aquatic environments.

Antibiotic resistant Pseudomonas spp. in the aquatic environment: A prevalence study under tropical and temperate climate conditions

Microbial populations which are resistant to antibiotics are an emerging environmental concern with potentially serious implications for public health. Thus, there is a growing concern in exploring the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in the environment with no limitations to the factors that contribute to their emergence. The aquatic environment is considered to be a hot-spot for the acquisition and spread of antibiotic resistance due to pollution with emerging contaminants derived from anthropogenic activities. In this study, we report on the isolation and characterization of 141 Pseudomonas spp. from aquatic sediments receiving partially (un)treated hospital and communal effluents from three distinct geographical locations: Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), India (IN), and Switzerland (CH). P. putida (42%) and P. aeruginosa (39%) were the dominant Pseudomonas species. The highest frequency of antibiotic resistance against eight anti-pseudomonas agents was found among IN isolates (35-60%), followed by DRC (18-50%) and CH (12-54%). CTX-M was the most frequent β-lactamase found in CH (47% of isolates), while VIM-1 was dominant in isolates from DRC (61%) and IN (29%). NDM-1 was found in 29% of the total IN isolates and surprisingly also in 6% of CH isolates. Chromosomally-encoded efflux mechanisms were overexpressed in P. aeruginosa isolates from all three geographic locations. In vitro conjugative transfers of antibiotic resistance plasmids occurred more frequently under tropical temperatures (30 and 37 °C) than under temperate conditions (10 °C). The presence of Extended Spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) and Metallo β-lactamases (MBLs) in the isolates from environmental samples has important implications for humans who depend on public water supply and sanitation facilities. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate a comparison between treated/untreated effluents from urban and hospital settings as a source of microbial resistance by evaluating the aquatic ecosystems sediments from tropical and temperate climate conditions. Taken together, our findings demonstrate a widespread occurrence of antibiotic resistance in aquatic ecosystems sediments receiving untreated/treated wastewater and how these contemporary sources of contamination, contribute to the spread of microbial resistance in the aquatic environment. This research presents also useful tools to evaluate sediment quality in the receiving river/reservoir systems which can be applied to similar environments.

Microbiological quality of water in a city with persistent and recurrent waterborne diseases under tropical sub-rural conditions: The case of Kikwit City, Democratic Republic of the Congo

The availability of safe drinking water in sub-Saharan countries remains a major challenge because poor sanitation has been the cause of various outbreaks of waterborne disease due to the poor microbiological quality of water used for domestic purposes. The faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) used in the present study included Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Enterococcus (ENT). FIB and aerobic mesophilic bacteria (AMB) were quantified during July 2015 (dry season) and November 2015 (rainy season) in order to assess the quality of drinking water from wells (n=3; P1-P3), and two rivers, the River Lukemi (RLK, n=3) and River Luini (RLN, n=2) in the city of Kikwit, which is located in the province of Kwilu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kikwit is well known for its outbreaks of persistent and recurrent waterborne diseases including Entamoeba, Shigella, typhoid fever, cholera, and Ebola Viral Hemorrhagic Fever. Consequently, E. coli, ENT, and AMB were quantified in water samples according to the standard international methods for water quality determination using the membrane filtration method. The FIB characterization was performed for human-specific Bacteroides by PCR using specific primers. The results obtained revealed high FIB concentrations in river samples collected during both seasons. For example, E. coli respectively reached 4.3×10⁴ and 9.2×10⁴ CFU 100mL^-1 in the dry season and the wet season. ENT reached 5.3×10³ CFU 100mL^-1 during the dry season and 9.8×10³ CFU 100mL^-1 in the wet season. The pollution was significantly worse in the wet season compared to the dry season. Surprisingly, no faecal contamination was observed in well water samples collected in the dry season while E. coli and ENT were detected in all wells in the wet season with values of 6, 7, and 11CFUmL^-1 for E. coli in wells P1-P3, respectively and 3, 5, 9 CFU mL^-1for ENT in the same wells. Interestingly, the PCR assays for human-specific Bacteroides HF183/HF134 indicated that 97-100% captured in all analyses of isolated FIB were of human origin. The results indicate that contamination of E. coli, ENT, and AMB in the studied water resources increases during the wet season. This study improves understanding of the microbiological pollution of rivers and wells under tropical conditions and will guide future municipal/local government decisions on improving water quality in this region which is characterised by persistent and recurrent waterborne diseases. Although the epidemiology can be geographically localised, the effects of cross border transmission can be global. Therefore, the research results presented in this article form recommendations to municipalities/local authorities and the approach and procedures can be carried out in a similar environment.

The impact of hospital and urban wastewaters on the bacteriological contamination of the water resources in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo

Although the United Nations General Assembly recognized in 2010 the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights, the contamination of water supplies with faecal pathogens is still a major and unsolved problem in many parts of the world. In this study, faecal indicator bacteria (FIB), including Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Enterococcus (ENT), were quantified over the period of June/July 2014 and June/July 2015 to assess the quality of hospital effluents (n = 3: H1, H2 and H3) and of rivers receiving wastewaters from the city of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. The water and sediment samples from the river-receiving systems were collected in, upstream and downstream of the hospital outlet pipe (HOP) discharge. The analysis of E. coli and ENT in water and sediment suspension was performed using the cultural membrane filter method. The FIB characterization was performed for general E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis(E. faecalis) and human-specific Bacteroides by PCR using specific primers. The results revealed very high FIB concentration in the hospital effluent waters, with E. coli reaching the values of 4.2 × 10(5), 16.1 × 10(5) and 5.9 × 10(5) CFU 100 mL(-1), for the hospital effluents from H1, H2, and H3, respectively; and Enterococcus reaching the values of 2.3 × 10(4), 10.9 × 10(4) and 4.1 × 10(4) CFU 100 mL(-1), respectively. Interestingly, the FIB levels in the water and sediment samples from river-receiving systems are spatially and temporally highly variable and present in some samples with higher values than the hospital effluents. The PCR assays for human-specific Bacteroides HF183/HF134 further indicate that more than 98% of bacteria were from human origin. The results of this research therefore confirm the hypothesis of our previous studies, indicating that in developing countries (e.g., Democratic Republic of Congo and South India), the hospital effluent waters can be a significant source of the deterioration of the bacteriological quality for urban rivers. The approach used in this investigation can be further used to decipher the pollution of water resources by human faecal contamination. The results of this research will help to better understand the microbiological pollution problems in river-receiving systems and will guide municipality decisions on improving the urban water quality.

Leachates draining from controlled municipal solid waste landfill: Detailed geochemical characterization and toxicity tests

Management of municipal solid wastes in many countries consists of waste disposal into landfill without treatment or selective collection of solid waste fractions including plastics, paper, glass, metals, electronic waste, and organic fraction leading to the unsolved problem of contamination of numerous ecosystems such as air, soil, surface, and ground water. Knowledge of leachate composition is critical in risk assessment of long-term impact of landfills on human health and the environment as well as for prevention of negative outcomes. The research presented in this paper investigates the seasonal variation of draining leachate composition and resulting toxicity as well as the contamination status of soil/sediment from lagoon basins receiving leachates from landfill in Mpasa, a suburb of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Samples were collected during the dry and rainy seasons and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, soluble ions, toxic metals, and were then subjected to toxicity tests. Results highlight the significant seasonal difference in leachate physicochemical composition. Affected soil/sediment showed higher values for toxic metals than leachates, indicating the possibility of using lagoon system for the purification of landfill leachates, especially for organic matter and heavy metal sedimentation. However, the ecotoxicity tests demonstrated that leachates are still a significant source of toxicity for terrestrial and benthic organisms. Therefore, landfill leachates should not be discarded into the environment (soil or surface water) without prior treatment. Interest in the use of macrophytes in lagoon system is growing and toxic metal retention in lagoon basin receiving systems needs to be fully investigated in the future. This study presents useful tools for evaluating landfill leachate quality and risk in lagoon systems which can be applied to similar environmental compartments.

Hospital Effluents Are One of Several Sources of Metal, Antibiotic Resistance Genes, and Bacterial Markers Disseminated in Sub-Saharan Urban Rivers

Data concerning the occurrence of emerging biological contaminants such as antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) in aquatic environments in Sub-Saharan African countries is limited. On the other hand, antibiotic resistance remains a worldwide problem which may pose serious potential risks to human and animal health. Consequently, there is a growing number of reports concerning the prevalence and dissemination of these contaminants into various environmental compartments. Sediments provide the opportunity to reconstruct the pollution history and evaluate impacts so this study investigates the abundance and distribution of toxic metals, FIB, and ARGs released from hospital effluent wastewaters and their presence in river sediments receiving systems. ARGs (bla TEM, bla CTX-M, bla SHV, and aadA), total bacterial load, and selected bacterial species FIB [Escherichia coli, Enterococcus (ENT)] and species (Psd) were quantified by targeting species specific genes using quantitative PCR (qPCR) in total DNA extracted from the sediments recovered from 4 hospital outlet pipes (HOP) and their river receiving systems in the City of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The results highlight the great concentration of toxic metals in HOP, reaching the values (in mg kg(-1)) of 47.9 (Cr), 213.6 (Cu), 1434.4 (Zn), 2.6 (Cd), 281.5 (Pb), and 13.6 (Hg). The results also highlight the highest (P < 0.05) values of 16S rRNA, FIB, and ARGs copy numbers in all sampling sites including upstream (control site), discharge point, and downstream of receiving rivers, indicating that the hospital effluent water is not an exclusive source of the biological contaminants entering the urban rivers. Significant correlation were observed between (i) all analyzed ARGs and total bacterial load (16S rRNA) 0.51 to 0.72 (p < 0.001, n = 65); (ii) ARGs (except bla TEM) and FIB and Psd 0.57 < r < 0.82 (p < 0.001, n = 65); and (iii) ARGs (except bla TEM) and toxic metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn) 0.44 to 0.72, (p < 0.001, n = 65). These findings demonstrate that several sources including hospital and urban wastewaters contribute to the spread of toxic metals and biological emerging contaminants in aquatic ecosystems.