Effects of pre-slaughter fasting on antemortem skeletal muscle protein degradation levels and postmortem muscle free amino acid concentrations in broiler chickens

This study investigated the effects of pre-slaughter fasting time on the relationship between skeletal muscle protein degradation levels at slaughter and chicken meat quality after 48 h of postmortem aging. Twenty-four broiler chicks at 0 d of age were used in this study until 28 d of age. At 27 d of age, the chickens were assigned to 4 treatment groups: 0 h of fasting (0H), 8 h of fasting (8H), 16 h of fasting (16H), or 24 h of fasting (24H). They were slaughtered at 28 d of age. Blood samples were collected before fasting and immediately before slaughter. Plasma Nτ-methylhistidine concentration, an index of skeletal muscle protein degradation level, and muscle free amino acid concentration were analyzed. Antemortem changes in individual plasma Nτ-methylhistidine concentrations were significantly increased in 8H, 16H, and 24H compared to that in 0H (P < 0.05). After 48 h of postmortem storage, the glutamic acid content in the pectoralis major muscles increased with fasting time (P < 0.05), and the umami taste of chicken soup in the fasting groups (8H, 16H, 24H) was higher than that in the 0H group (P < 0.05). The antemortem changes in plasma Nτ-methylhistidine concentrations were correlated with glutamic acid content in the pectoralis major muscles (r = 0.57, P < 0.05) and umami taste (r = 0.66, P < 0.05). These results suggest that skeletal muscle protein degradation levels at slaughter are related to postmortem chicken meat quality, especially glutamic acid content and umami taste.

Effects of Cyclic High Ambient Temperature on Muscle Imidazole Dipeptide Content in Broiler Chickens

Imidazole dipeptides possess important bioregulatory properties in animals. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of high ambient temperature on muscle imidazole dipeptides (carnosine, anserine, and balenine) in broiler chickens. Sixteen 14-day-old male broiler chickens were divided into two groups, which were reared under thermoneutral (25 ± 1 °C) or cyclic high ambient temperature (35 ± 1 °C for 8 h/day) for 4 weeks. Chickens exposed to cyclic high ambient temperatures displayed lower skeletal muscle anserine and carnosine content than control chickens. Balenine could not be detected in the pectoral muscle of either group. The pectoral muscles of broiler chickens kept under cyclic high-temperature exhibited significantly lower mRNA expression of carnosine synthase 1, which synthesizes carnosine and anserine; but a significantly higher mRNA expression of carnosinase 2, which degrades carnosine and anserine. Our results suggest that heat exposure decreases pectoral imidazole dipeptide content in broiler chickens. This may be attributed to a lower expression of imidazole dipeptide-synthesizing genes, but higher levels of genes involved in their degradation.

Effects of Delaying Post-hatch Feeding on the Plasma Metabolites of Broiler Chickens Revealed by Targeted and Untargeted Metabolomics

Exogenous nutrients are essential for body and skeletal muscle growth in newly hatched chicks, and delaying post-hatch feeding negatively affects body growth, meat yield, and meat quality. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of delayed post-hatch feeding on the metabolic profiles of broiler chickens using a combination of targeted and untargeted metabolomics. Newly hatched chicks had either immediate free access to feed (freely fed chicks) or no access to feed from 0 to 2 days of age (delayed-fed chicks); both groups were subsequently provided feed ad libitum until 13 days of age. Untargeted metabolomic analysis was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, whereas targeted metabolomic analysis of amino acids was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography with ortho-phthalaldehyde derivatization. Delayed feeding increased the plasma levels of sucrose, maltose, serotonin, lactitol, gentiobiose, xylitol, threonic acid, and asparagine, and decreased the plasma levels of creatinine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid. In addition, the digestibility of the nitrogen-free extract (starch and sugar) and the cecal butyric acid concentration increased in chicks subjected to delayed feeding. In contrast, delayed feeding did not affect muscle protein degradation or digestibility in chicks. Taken together, our results indicate that delaying feeding until 48 h post-hatch alters multiple metabolic pathways, which are accompanied by changes in intestinal carbohydrate digestion and cecal butyric acid content in broiler chickens.

Quantification of Nτ -Methylhistidine and Nπ-Methylhistidine in Chicken Plasma by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

The concentration of N^τ-methylhistidine in plasma provides an index of skeletal muscle protein breakdown. This study aimed to establish a quantitative method for measuring the concentrations of N^τ-methylhistidine and its isomer N^π-methylhistidine in chicken plasma, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with stable isotope dilution analysis. The acceptable linear ranges of detection were 1.56-50.00 μmol/L for N^τ-methylhistidine and 0.78-25.00 μmol/L for N^π-methylhistidine. The proposed method detected changes in the plasma levels of N^τ-methylhistidine and N^π-methylhistidine in response to fasting and re-feeding. These results suggest that the method developed in this study can be used for the simultaneous measurement of N^τ-methylhistidine and N^π-methylhistidine in chicken plasma.

Effects of a Dried Neem Leaf Extract on the Growth Performance, Meat Yield and Meat Quality in Skeletal Muscle of Broiler Chickens Under High-Temperature Conditions

We aimed to examine the effects of cyclical high ambient temperature (HT) and dried Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract (DNE) supplementation on the growth performance, muscle lipid peroxidation level, and muscle drip loss of broiler chickens. Twenty-four 15-day old broiler chickens (Chunky strain ROSS 308) were divided into four treatment groups that were fed diets with or without 2.0% DNE under thermoneutral (25 ± 1°C) or cyclical HT (35 ± 1°C for 8 h/day) conditions. Supplementation of DNE did not affect the growth performance of the chicks, but HT reduced their feed intake, the weights of breast muscle and heart. In addition, supplementation with DNE ameliorated the negative effects of cyclical HT on feed intake and breast muscle mass. Furthermore, cyclical HT increased the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration and drip loss over 48 h of storage of the breast muscle, and these effects were ameliorated by DNE. Collectively, we conclude that dietary supplementation with DNE reduces the muscle MDA concentration and drip loss of broiler chickens kept under HT conditions.

Suppression of FoxO1 mRNA by β2 -adrenoceptor-cAMP signaling through miR-374b-5p and miR-7a-1-3p in C2C12 myotubes

β₂ -Adrenoceptor (β₂ -AR) signaling decreases the transcriptional activity of forkhead box O (FoxO), but the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated how β₂ -AR signaling regulates the protein abundance of FoxO and its transcriptional activity in skeletal muscle. We observed that stimulation of β₂ -AR with its selective agonist, clenbuterol, rapidly decreased FoxO1 mRNA expression, and this was accompanied by a decrease in either FoxO1 protein level or FoxO transcriptional activity. We subsequently observed that miR-374b-5p and miR-7a-1-3p were rapidly upregulated in response to β₂ -AR stimulation. Transfection with mimics of either miRNA successfully decreased FoxO1 mRNA. Moreover, because β₂ -AR stimulation increased cAMP concentration, pretreatment with an adenylyl cyclase inhibitor canceled out these effects of β₂ -AR stimulation. These results suggest that β₂ -AR stimulation results in rapid upregulation of miR-374b-5p and miR-7a-1-3p in myotubes, which in turn results in a decrease in FoxO1 mRNA expression via the β₂ -AR-cAMP signaling pathway.

Effect of mixed rearing of barrows and gilts on backfat thickness and serum metabolite profiles of the Kagoshima-Kurobuta (Berkshire) pig

We investigated the effect of mixed rearing of barrows and gilts on the backfat thickness and the serum metabolite profiles of Kagoshima‐Kurobuta (Berkshire) pigs. A total of 149 pigs with an average body weight of 35 kg were divided into the following groups: 100%, 90%, 70%, 50%, 30%, 10%, and 0% groups consisting of 10 barrows (1 pen), 9 barrows + 1 gilt (3 pens), 7 barrows + 3 gilts (2 pens), 5 barrows + 5 gilts (3 pens), 3 barrows + 7 gilts (2 pens), 1 barrow + 9 gilts (3 pens), and 9 gilts (1 pen), respectively. All pigs were raised to a shipping weight of 120 kg. Mixed rearing significantly reduced (p < 0.001) backfat thickness, and the optimum mixing ratio of barrows and gilts was 7:3 (the 70% group). Four types of circulating sex steroids were found in both the barrows and gilts in the 50% group but were not detected in barrows from the 100% group. These results indicated that mixed rearing of barrows and gilts was effective for reducing the backfat thickness of barrows, and induced sex steroid hormones may influence the backfat thickness of barrows in mixed‐reared groups.

Genetic effect on free amino acid contents of egg yolk and albumen using five different chicken genotypes under floor rearing system

Chicken eggs play an important role as food resources in the world. Although genetic effects on yolk and albumen contents have been reported, the number of chicken genotypes analyzed so far is still limited. To investigate the effect of genetic background on 10 egg traits, 19 yolk amino acid traits, and 19 albumen amino acid traits, we evaluated a total of 58 eggs from five genotypes: two Japanese indigenous breeds (Ukokkei and Nagoya) and three hybrids (Araucana cross, Kurohisui, and Boris Brown) under a floor rearing system. One-way ANOVA revealed significant effects of genotype on 10 egg traits, 8 yolk amino acids (Asp, Glu, Ser, Gly, Thr, Tyr, Cys, and Leu), and 11 albumen amino acids (Asp, Glu, Asn, Ser, Gln, His, Ala, Tyr, Trp, Phe, and Ile) contents. Moderate to strong positive phenotypic correlations among traits within each trait category (size and weight traits, yolk amino acid traits, and albumen amino acid traits), whereas there were basically no or weak correlations among the trait categories. However, a unique feature was found in the Araucana cross indicating moderate positive correlations of amino acids between yolk and albumen. These results suggest that genetic factors can modify not only the size and weight of the egg and eggshell color but also yolk and albumen free amino acids contents.

Analyses of free amino acid and taste sensor traits in egg albumen and yolk revealed potential of value-added eggs in chickens

To create high-quality eggs by using different breed and feed materials, we investigated free amino acid contents and taste sensor traits using two chicken breeds (Rhode Island Red; RIR and Australorp; AUS) fed two feeds (mixed and fermented feeds). Two-way ANOVA revealed significant breed and feed main and interaction effects on albumen bitterness and a significant interaction effect on yolk bitterness. Albumen from RIR fed mixed feed and AUS fed fermented feed was higher bitterness, whereas yolk from those groups was lower bitterness. Significant breed effects were detected in four albumen amino acid traits (His, Met, Ile, and Lys) and a yolk His, whereas significant feed effects were found in 15 albumen amino acid traits (Asp, Glu, Ser, His, Gly, Thr, Ala, Tyr, Val, Met, Trp, Ile, Leu, Lys, and Pro) and a yolk cystine trait. Compared to albumen amino acids, yolk amino acids had limited effects by breed and feed. The present results suggest that genetic and nutritional factors can alter not only amino acid contents but also sensor values of bitterness, indicating that selecting the combination of breed and feed enable us to make amino acids enriched and taste added designer eggs in future.

Impact on genetic differences among various chicken breeds on free amino acid contents of egg yolk and albumen

Eggs play important roles as food resources and nutraceuticals, to alleviate malnutrition and to improve health status in the world. Since free amino acids contribute to the nutritional values and food tastes, we investigated a total of 81 eggs from five chicken breeds, which are Australorp, Nagoya (NGY), Rhode Island Red (RIR), Shamo (SHA), Ukokkei, and two F₁ hybrids (NGYxRIR and SHAxRIR) to test impact on genetic differences in 10 egg traits, 20 yolk amino acid traits, and 18 albumen amino acid traits. One-way ANOVA revealed significant breed effects on 10 egg traits, 20 yolk amino acid traits, and 15 albumen amino acid traits. Moreover, a significant heterosis effect on yolk aspartic acid was identified. In addition, positive correlations were found broadly among traits within each trait category (egg traits, yolk amino acid traits, and albumen amino acid traits), whereas there were basically no or weak correlations among the trait categories. These results suggest that almost all traits can be dramatically modified by genetic factor, and there will be partially independent production systems of amino acids into yolk and albumen. Since there will be typical quantitative genetic architecture of egg contents, further genetic analyses will be needed.

Effects of delaying post-hatch feeding on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzyme mRNA expression in the pectoralis major muscle of newly hatched chicks

Excessive lipid peroxidation negatively affects the physiological response and meat quality of chickens. Delaying post-hatch feeding was previously found to increase lipid peroxidation in the skeletal muscle of finishing broiler chickens. The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of delayed post-hatch feeding on lipid peroxidation and the mRNA expressions of antioxidant enzymes in the pectoralis major muscle of broiler chicks during the post-hatching period. Newly hatched chicks either had immediate free access to feed (freely-fed chicks) or had no access to feed from 0 to 2 days old (delayed-fed chicks), after which both groups were fed ad libitum until 4 or 13 days old. The lipid peroxidation level was higher in the delayed-fed than freely-fed chicks at 2, 4, and 13 days old. At 2 days old, the mRNA expressions of Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD, and GPX7 were lower in the delayed-fed than freely-fed chicks, while catalase mRNA levels did not differ. Furthermore, at 4 and 13 days old, lower mRNA expressions of Cu/Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD were observed in the delayed-fed than freely-fed chicks. These results suggest that delaying post-hatch feeding reduces the mRNA levels of Cu/Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD, consequently affecting muscle lipid peroxidation in chicks during subsequent growth.

Effects of Cyclic High Ambient Temperature and Dietary Supplementation of Orotic Acid, a Pyrimidine Precursor, on Plasma and Muscle Metabolites in Broiler Chickens

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of high ambient temperature (HT) and orotic acid supplementation on the plasma and muscle metabolomic profiles in broiler chickens. Thirty-two 14-day-old broiler chickens were divided into four treatment groups that were fed diets with or without 0.7% orotic acid under thermoneutral (25 ± 1 °C) or cyclic HT (35 ± 1 °C for 8 h/day) conditions for 2 weeks. The chickens exposed to HT had higher plasma malondialdehyde concentrations, suggesting an increase in lipid peroxidation, which is alleviated by orotic acid supplementation. The HT environment also affected the serine, glutamine, and tyrosine plasma concentrations, while orotic acid supplementation affected the aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and tyrosine plasma concentrations. Untargeted gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)-based metabolomics analysis identified that the HT affected the plasma levels of metabolites involved in purine metabolism, ammonia recycling, pyrimidine metabolism, homocysteine degradation, glutamate metabolism, urea cycle, β-alanine metabolism, glycine and serine metabolism, and aspartate metabolism, while orotic acid supplementation affected metabolites involved in pyrimidine metabolism, β-alanine metabolism, the malate-aspartate shuttle, and aspartate metabolism. Our results suggest that cyclic HT affects various metabolic processes in broiler chickens, and that orotic acid supplementation ameliorates HT-induced increases in lipid peroxidation.

Feeding the Outer Bran Fraction of Rice Alters Hepatic Carbohydrate Metabolism in Rats

Dietary intake of fiber-rich food has been reported to contribute to multiple health benefits. The aim of the current study is to investigate the effects of a diet containing the outer bran fraction of rice (OBFR), which is rich in insoluble fiber, on the intestinal environment and metabolite profiles of rats. Fourteen 8-week-old male Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into a control group and an OBFR group. For a period of 21 days, the control group was fed a control diet, while the OBFR group was fed a diet containing 5% OBFR. Metabolomics analysis revealed drastic changes in the cecal metabolites of the rats fed the OBFR diet. Furthermore, in the plasma and liver tissue, the concentrations of metabolites involved in pyruvate metabolism, the pentose phosphate pathway, gluconeogenesis, or valine, leucine, isoleucine degradation were changed. Concordantly, the OBFR diet increased the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in these metabolic pathways in the livers of the rats. Collectively, these results suggest that the OBFR diet altered the concentrations of metabolites in the cecal contents, plasma, and liver, and the hepatic gene expressions of rats, and that this may have mainly contributed to carbohydrate metabolism in the liver.

Insulin acutely increases glucose transporter 1 on plasma membranes and glucose uptake in an AKT-dependent manner in chicken adipocytes

Avian glucose transporters (GLUT) responsible for insulin-responsive glucose uptake into adipocytes remain poorly characterized. We aimed to identify the insulin-responsive GLUT using primary culture of chicken adipocytes. Acute stimulation with 1 μM insulin for 20 min increased 2-deoxyglucose uptake, AKT protein phosphorylation, and GLUT1 protein levels on the plasma membrane of the chicken adipocytes, whereas pretreatment with 10 μM triciribine, an AKT inhibitor, canceled these effects. Furthermore, the insulin stimulation did not affect GLUT12 protein levels on the plasma membrane of the chicken adipocytes. Our results suggest that GLUT1 is an insulin-responsive GLUT in chicken adipocytes.

Evaluation of effects of the dry-heat-processed sweet potato waste as broiler feed

This study was conducted to examine the effects of feeding dry-processed sweet potato waste on the growth of broilers. Sweet potato waste was air-dried (A-SPW) or heat-dried (D-SPW). Twenty-four 14-d-old chicks were assigned to the following groups (14-28 days): control, fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet; A-SPW, fed the basal diet with 55% of the corn replaced with A-SPW meal; D-SPW, fed the basal diet with 50% of the corn replaced with D-SPW meal. The feed conversion ratio (feed/gain) of the D-SPW group was greater than that of the A-SPW group. The relative weight of abdominal fat and the muscle lipid content of the D-SPW group were increased compared with those of the A-SPW group. The metabolizabilities of crude protein and gross energy of the D-SPW group were increased compared with those of the A-SPW group. The plasma α-tocopherol concentrations of the A-SPW and D-SPW groups were greater than that of the control group. Plasma malondialdehyde was decreased in the A-SPW and D-SPW groups, and muscle malondialdehyde was decreased in the D-SPW group, compared with the control group. Our results demonstrate that dry-heat processing improves the nutrient metabolizability of sweet potato waste and makes it into available feed for broilers.

Dietary Moringa oleifera improves growth performance, oxidative status, and immune related gene expression in broilers under normal and high temperature conditions

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of Moringa oleifera (MO) on the performance, antioxidative status, and immune related gene expression in broilers raised under normal or heat stress conditions. Broiler chickens were distributed into 4 groups and fed diets with dietary MO at 0% or 5% (MO0 or MO5) and raised under ambient temperature 22 ± 1 °C (N) or 35±1 °C (HS). HS conditions negatively affected the weight gain and FCR, while feeding MO exhibited beneficial effects especially under HS conditions. Triglycerides, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) levels were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in chickens raised in HS conditions and fed the basal diet than those in normal condition and fed with or without MO, while MO decreased triglycerides and total cholesterol levels in normal and HS conditions. Blood high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) was significantly decreased in broilers raised in HS conditions and fed diets without MO, while MO increased HDL level. Blood glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in broilers raised in HS conditions and fed the basal diet without MO. mRNA expression of GSH-Px was significantly (P < 0.05) downregulated in broilers raised in HS conditions and fed diets without MO. Broilers under normal or HS conditions and fed the basal diet exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) downregulated mRNA expressions of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) compared to chickens under normal conditions and fed MO. Liver and muscle thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARs) were significantly (P < 0.05) increased in broilers under HS conditions and fed diet without MO. The expressions of interleukins (IL2 and IL6) were significantly (P < 0.05) downregulated in broilers under normal or HS conditions and fed diets without MO. To sum up, HS conditions depressed the performance, antioxidative status, and immune related gene expression in broilers, while MO obviously alleviated these negative effects in broilers.

Effects of astaxanthin-rich dried cell powder from Paracoccus carotinifaciens on carotenoid composition and lipid peroxidation in skeletal muscle of broiler chickens under thermo-neutral or realistic high temperature conditions

Thirty-two 15-day old broiler chicks (Chunky strain ROSS 308) were randomly divided into four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design. The main factors were diet (basal diet or basal diet supplemented with 0.15% astaxanthin-rich dried cell powder (Panaferd-P [astaxanthin 30 ppm]) and ambient temperature (thermo-neutral [25 ± 1°C] or high [35 ± 1°C for 6 hr]). Dietary supplementation with Panaferd-P did not affect growth performance, though high ambient temperature decreased feed intake and the weight of breast tender muscle, liver, and heart. High ambient temperature also decreased redness in both breast and leg muscles of chickens, while Panaferd-P increased redness and yellowness of breast and leg muscles of chickens. Panaferd-P increased Paracoccus carotinifaciens-derived pigments (i.e., adonixanthin, astaxanthin, adonirubin, and cantaxanthin) as well as corn-derived pigments such as zeaxanthin and lutein in breast and leg muscles. High ambient temperature increased the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in breast muscle, while Panaferd-P decreased the MDA concentration in breast muscle under both temperature conditions. Our results suggest that dietary supplementation with Panaferd-P increases muscle carotenoid content, the redness and yellowness of meat and decreases the muscle MDA concentration in broiler chickens kept under thermo-neutral or high ambient temperature conditions.

The β2-adrenergic receptor is involved in differences in the protein degradation level of the pectoral muscle between fast- and slow-growing chicks during the neonatal period

The aim of this study was to investigate whether β₂-AR mRNA expression is involved in either atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA expression or protein degradation in chicken skeletal muscle by comparing fast- and slow-growing chicks during the neonatal period. Based on their body weight gain from 1 to 5 days of age, 5-day-old chicks (Gallus gallus domestics) were divided into a slow-growing and a fast-growing group, the mean weight gains of which were 6.3 ± 1.3 g/day and 11.3 ± 0.9 g/day, respectively. The ratio of pectoral muscle weight to total body weight was higher in the fast-growing group of chicks than in the slow-growing group. In addition, the plasma 3-methylhistidine concentration, an index of protein degradation in skeletal muscle, was significantly lower in the fast-growing than in the slow-growing chicks. The mRNA expression of β₂-AR, which we previously found is involved in decreasing muscle protein degradation by suppression atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA expression, was significantly higher in the pectoral muscle of the fast-growing group compared with that of the slow-growing group. Concordantly, lower mRNA expression of atrogin-1/MAFbx was observed in the pectoral muscle of the fast-growing chicks. However, in the sartorius muscle, which is a muscle in the thigh, the ratio of the muscle weight to total body weight was not significantly different between the two groups of chicks at 5 days of age. In addition, there was no significant difference in the mRNA expressions of β₂-AR and atrogin-1/MAFbx in the sartorius muscle between these two groups. These results suggest that β₂-AR expression levels might be physiologically significant in the control of protein degradation in the pectoral muscle of neonatal chicks.

β1- and β2-adrenergic receptor stimulation differ in their effects on PGC-1α and atrogin-1/MAFbx gene expression in chick skeletal muscle

Adrenaline changes expression of the genes encoding peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α), which is known as a regulator of muscle size, and atrogin-1/muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx), which is a muscle-specific ubiquitin ligase. However, the subtype of β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) involved in regulating these genes in skeletal muscle is not yet well defined. In this study, the effects of intraperitoneal injection of adrenaline and three β_1-3-AR selective agonists on chick skeletal muscle metabolism were examined, to evaluate the functions of β-AR subtypes. Adrenaline decreased atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA levels accompanied by an increase in PGC-1α mRNA and protein levels. However, among the three selective agonists, only the β₁-AR agonist, dobutamine, increased PGC-1α mRNA and protein levels, while the β₂-AR agonist, clenbuterol, suppressed atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA levels. In addition, preinjection of the β₁-AR antagonist, acebutolol, and the β₂-AR antagonist, butoxamine, inhibited the adrenaline-induced increase in PGC-1α mRNA levels and the decrease in atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA levels, respectively. Compared with adrenaline administration, the β₃-AR agonist, BRL37344, decreased PGC-1α mRNA levels and increased atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA levels. These results suggest that, in chick skeletal muscle, PGC-1α is induced via the β₁-AR, while atrogin-1/MAFbx is suppressed via the β₂-AR.

Effects of first exogenous nutrients on the mRNA levels of atrogin-1/MAFbx and GLUT1 in the skeletal muscles of newly hatched chicks

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of first exogenous nutrients on the mRNA levels of muscle atrophy F-box (atrogin-1/MAFbx) and glucose transporters (GLUTs) in the skeletal muscles of newly hatched chicks with no feed experience. In experiment 1, newly hatched chicks had free access to feed or were fasted for the first 24h. The chicks having free access to feed for the first 24h increased their body weight and had decreased atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA levels in their sartorius and pectoralis major muscles compared with the fasted chicks. In experiment 2, newly hatched chicks received a single feed via intubation into the crop. Three hours after intubation, levels of atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA in the sartorius muscle were decreased whereas the plasma insulin concentration and phosphorylated AKT levels in the sartorius muscle were increased. In addition, the mRNA levels of GLUT1 and GLUT8 were increased in the sartorius muscle after the intubation. However, in the pectoralis major muscle, AKT phosphorylation and levels of atrogin-1/MAFbx, GLUT1 and GLUT8 mRNA were not affected 3h after intubation. The first exogenous nutrients increased the level of phosphorylated AKT in the sartorius muscle of newly hatched chicks, possibly because of the decrease in atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA levels. Furthermore, the sartorius muscle in newly hatched chicks appeared to be more susceptible to the first feed compared with the pectoralis major muscle.

Clenbuterol changes phosphorylated FOXO1 localization and decreases protein degradation in the sartorius muscle of neonatal chicks

To investigate the intracellular signaling mechanisms by which clenbuterol reduces muscle protein degradation, we examined the phosphorylation level and intracellular localization of FOXO1 in the sartorius muscle of neonatal chicks. One-day-old chicks were given a single intraperitoneal injection of clenbuterol (0.1 mg/kg body weight). Three hours after injection, AKT protein was phosphorylated in the sartorius muscle by clenbuterol injection. Coincidentally, clenbuterol increased cytosolic level of phosphorylated FOXO1 protein, while it decreased nuclear level of FOXO1 protein in the sartorius muscle. Furthermore, clenbuterol decreased the expression of mRNAs for muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases (atrogin-1/MAFbx and MuRF1) in the sartorius muscle accompanied by decreased plasma 3-methylhistidine concentration, an index of muscle protein degradation, at 3 h after injection. These results suggested that, in the sartorius muscle of the chicks, clenbuterol changed the intracellular localization of phosphorylated FOXO1, and consequently decreased protein degradation via suppressing the expression of genes encoding muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases.

Gene expression pattern of glucose transporters in the skeletal muscles of newly hatched chicks

The gene expression pattern of the glucose transporters (GLUT1, GLUT3, GLUT8, and GLUT12) among pectoralis major and minor, biceps femoris, and sartorius muscles from newly hatched chicks was examined. GLUT1 mRNA level was higher in pectoralis major muscle than in the other muscles. Phosphorylated AKT level was also high in the same muscle, suggesting a relationship between AKT and GLUT1 expression.

The effects of acute cold exposure on morphology and gene expression in the heart of neonatal chicks

Cold exposure induces an increase in blood flow and blood pressure, and long-term exposure to cold causes cardiac hypertrophy. Neonatal chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) are highly sensitive to cold exposure, because their capacity for thermogenesis is immature until 1 week after hatching. Hence, we hypothesized that the heart of chicks at around 1 week of age acutely responds to cold environment. To investigate the effect of acute (24 h) and long-term (2 weeks) cold on the heart of chicks, 7-day-old chicks were exposed to cold temperature (4 °C) or kept warm (30 °C). Chicks exposed to the cold showed cardiac hypertrophy with marked left ventricular (LV) chamber dilation and wall thickening. On the other hand, long-term cold exposure (2 weeks from 7-day-old) induced an increase in total ventricular mass, but not in LV morphological parameters. Then, we investigated the details of acute cardiac hypertrophy in chicks. Electron microscopy revealed that cardiomyocytes in the hypertrophied LV had enlarged mitochondria with less dense cristae. Although the mRNA expression of lipoprotein lipase in the LV of the cold-exposed chicks significantly increased, the mRNA expression of genes involved in fatty acid β-oxidation did not change in response to cold exposure. In addition, the mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha, which enhances mitochondrial biogenesis and function under physiological cardiac hypertrophy, increased in LV of cold-exposed chicks. The study found that acute cold exposure to neonatal chicks induces LV hypertrophy. However, these results suggest that acute cold exposure to chicks might induce both adaptive and maladaptive responses of the LV.

Single injection of clenbuterol into newly hatched chicks decreases abdominal fat pad weight in growing broiler chickens

The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of clenbuterol injection into newly hatched chicks on both the abdominal fat pad tissue weight and the skeletal muscle weight during subsequent growth. Twenty-seven 1-day-old chicks were divided into two groups, receiving either a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of clenbuterol (0.1 mg/kg body weight) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Body weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio were not affected by clenbuterol injection during the 5-week experimental period, while the abdominal fat pad tissue weight of the clenbuterol-injected chicks was lower than that of the control chicks at 5 weeks post-injection. Plasma non-esterified fatty acid concentrations were significantly increased in the clenbuterol-injected chicks, while plasma triacylglycerol concentrations did not differ. Additionally, the enzymatic activity of fatty acid synthase was lower in the liver of the clenbuterol-injected chicks. Conversely, the skeletal muscle weights were not affected by clenbuterol injection. These results suggest that a single clenbuterol injection into 1-day-old chicks decreases the abdominal fat pad tissue weight, but may not affect skeletal muscle weights during growth. © 2015 Japanese Society of Animal Science.

Effects of feeding outer bran fraction of rice on lipid accumulation and fecal excretion in rats

Outer bran fraction of rice (OBFR) contains higher concentrations of crude fiber, γ-oryzanol, and phytic acid compared to whole rice bran (WRB). In this study, we examined the effects of feeding OBFR on lipid accumulation and fecal excretion in rats. Twenty-one male rats at seven-week-old were divided into a control group and two treatment groups. The control group was fed a control diet, and the treatment groups were fed OBFR- or WRB-containing diet for 21 days. There was no significant difference in growth performance. Feeding OBFR diet increased fecal number and weight accompanied by increased fecal lipid content, while it did not affect mRNA expressions encoding lipid metabolism-related protein in liver. In addition, feeding OBFR-diet decreased the abdominal fat tissue weight and improved plasma lipid profiles, while WRB-containing diet did not affect them. These results suggested that feeding OBFR-diet might prevent lipid accumulation via enhancing fecal lipid excretion in rats.

Single injection of the β2-adrenergic receptor agonist, clenbuterol, into newly hatched chicks alters abdominal fat pad mass in growing birds

Excessive energy is stored in white adipose tissue as triacylglycerols in birds as well as in mammals. Although β2-adrenergic receptor agonists reduce adipose tissue mass in birds, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of a single intraperitoneal injection of the β2-adrenergic receptor agonist, clenbuterol, on the abdominal fat pad tissue development. Thirty-three chicks at 1-day-old were given a single intraperitoneal injection of clenbuterol (0.1mg/kg body weight) or phosphate-buffered saline. At 2 weeks post-dose, the weight of the abdominal fat tissue was decreased in the clenbuterol-injected chicks, and small adipocyte-like cells were observed in the abdominal fat pad tissue of the clenbuterol-injected chicks. Then, the expression of mRNAs encoding genes related to avian adipogenesis was examined in the abdominal fat pat tissue. The expression of mRNAs encoding Krüppel-like zinc finger transcription factor 5 (KLF-5), KLF-15, and zinc finger protein 423 in the abdominal fat pad tissue of the clenbuterol-injected chicks was significantly lower (P<0.05) than that of the control chicks, while the expression of mRNA encoding peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma was not affected. In addition, both mRNA expression (P<0.05) and enzymatic activity (P<0.05) of fatty acid synthase (FAS) were decreased in the abdominal fat pad tissue of the clenbuterol-injected chicks, while clenbuterol injection did not affect FAS activity in liver. These results suggested that a single injection with clenbuterol into newly hatched chicks reduces their abdominal fat pad mass possibly via disrupting adipocyte development during later growth stages.

The effects of intraperitoneal clenbuterol injection on protein degradation and myostatin expression differ between the sartorius and pectoral muscles of neonatal chicks

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of injection of the β2-adrenergic receptor agonist clenbuterol on the skeletal muscles of neonatal chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus). One-day-old chicks were randomly divided into four groups and given a single intraperitoneal injection of clenbuterol (0.01, 0.1, or 1mg/kg) or phosphate-buffered saline. Twenty-four hours after the injection, the sartorius muscles (which consist of both slow- and fast-twitch fibers) of chicks that received 0.01 or 0.1mg/kg clenbuterol were significantly heavier than those of controls, while there were no between-group differences in the weight of the pectoral muscles, which consist of only fast-twitch fibers. Muscle free N(t)-methylhistidine, regarded as an index of myofibrillar proteolysis, was decreased in the sartorius muscle of the clenbuterol-injected chicks, while it was not affected in the pectoral muscles. In the sartorius muscle of the clenbuterol-injected chicks, myostatin and atrogin-1/MAFbx mRNA expressions were decreased, while insulin-like growth factor-I was unaffected. These observations suggested, in 1-day-old chicks, clenbuterol might increase mass of the sartorius muscle by decreasing myostatin gene expression and protein degradation.

Role of prolactin-like protein (PRL-L) in cold-induced increase of muscle mass in chicks

This study examined the hypothesis that a novel prolactin-like protein gene (PRL-L) is involved in cold-induced growth of skeletal muscle in chicks. Six-day-old chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) were exposed to cold at 4°C or kept warm at 30°C for 24h. Cold exposure induced significant increases in PRL-L expression that coincided with increases in the weight of the sartorius muscle, which comprises both fast- and slow-twitch fibers. Meanwhile, no induction of PRL-L mRNA was observed in the heart, liver, kidney, brain, or fat. Myoblast cells that expressed PRL-L mRNA grew faster than untransduced cells in media containing 2% serum. These results suggested that PRL-L might be involved in in controlling cold-induced muscle growth of chicks.

Increased expression of NOR-1 mRNA in the skeletal muscles of cold-exposed neonatal chicks

Nuclear receptor subfamily 4, group A (NR4A) subgroup orphan receptors are rapidly induced by various physiological stimuli and have been suggested to regulate oxidative metabolism and muscle mass in mammalian skeletal muscle. The results showed that the NR4A subgroup orphan receptor, NOR-1 (NR4A3), was acutely increased in skeletal muscles of neonatal chicks in response to short-term cold exposure. The increased NOR-1 gene expression was concomitant with cold-induced changes in gene expression of both myostatin and proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1 (PGC-1α), and the increase in skeletal muscle mass. These observations suggest that NOR-1 might play a role in controlling skeletal muscle growth in cold-exposed neonatal chicks.

Identification of tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) from natural habitat-derived fecal samples by PCR-RFLP analysis of cytochrome b gene

Fecal DNA analysis is a useful tool for the investigation of endangered species. Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro but knowledge of its genetic and ecological information is limited. In this study, we developed a species identification method for tamaraw by fecal DNA analysis. Eighteen feces presumed to be from tamaraw were collected in Mount Iglit-Baco National Park and species-known feces from domestic buffaloes and cattle were obtained from a farm. Additionally, one species-unknown fecal sample was obtained in Mount Aruyan Preserve, where the sighting of tamaraw has not been reported in recent years. Based on DNA sequence data previously reported, the genus Bubalus- and tamaraw-specific primers for PCR of cytochrome b gene were newly designed. The Bubalus-specific primer yielded a 976 bp fragment of cytochrome b for all fecal samples from tamaraw and domestic buffaloes, but not for cattle, whereas the tamaraw-specific primer yielded a 582 bp fragment for all tamaraw fecal samples and for one of the four domestic buffalo samples. PCR-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis of the 976 bp PCR fragment with AvrII or BsaXI provided distinct differences between tamaraw and domestic buffalo. PCR-RFLP analysis also showed that the species-unknown sample obtained in Mount Aruyan Preserve, originates from tamaraw.

Increased mass of slow-type skeletal muscles and depressed myostatin gene expression in cold-tolerant chicks

Temperature is maintained in birds by skeletal muscle shivering as well as by non-shivering thermogenesis in a cold environment because they lack brown adipose tissue, which is a mammalian thermogenic organ. Chicks acquire cold tolerance after their skeletal muscles mature. Here, we found that muscle fibers transformed to the slow-twitch type with increasing gene expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1alpha (PGC-1alpha), and that the mass increased with decreasing myostatin gene expression, in the leg muscles of 7-day-old and younger chicks within 24 h of cold exposure. Muscle fibers did not transform and the mass did not increase within 24 h of cold exposure in muscles from chicks older than 8 days of age. Myostatin mRNA expression remained depressed in cold-tolerant muscles for 24 h, whereas cold-enhanced growth of the muscle continued for 48 h. Myostatin expression was depressed and muscle mass was increased only in chick leg muscles that comprised both fast- and slow-twitch fibers. These results suggest that the acute regulation of PGC-1alpha and myostatin gene expression in leg muscles is required for chicks to acquire cold tolerance up to 7 days of age.

Possible roles of myostatin and PGC-1alpha in the increase of skeletal muscle and transformation of fiber type in cold-exposed chicks: expression of myostatin and PGC-1alpha in chicks exposed to cold

This study examined the hypothesis that myostatin and PGC-1alpha are involved in the increase in skeletal muscle mass and transformation of fiber type in cold-exposed chicks. One-week-old chicks were exposed to acute (24h) or long-term (8d) cold at 4 degrees C or kept warm at 30 degrees C. Acute cold exposure induced a significant increase in the skeletal muscle weight and the ratio of slow- to fast-fiber specific troponin I expression (sTnI/fTnI), accompanied by a significant decrease in lactate dehydrogenase activity. Expression of myostatin mRNA in the muscle was significantly lower in cold-exposed chicks than in the controls, whereas PGC-1alpha mRNA expression was significantly enhanced. These changes in the gene expression rapidly returned to the levels of the control chicks after the end of cold exposure, whereas the changes in fiber type and enzymatic activity were not resumed within 24h after removal of cold exposure. On the other hand, long-term exposure to cold resulted in a remarkable increase in skeletal muscle weight, accompanied by a significant increase in the ratio of sTnI/fTnI and the enzymatic activities of cytochrome oxidase and lactate dehydrogenase. However, the expression level of myostatin mRNA in cold-exposed chicks was not different from that in their age-matched control chicks and that of PGC-1alpha mRNA was significantly lower than in the controls. These results indicate that myostatin and PGC-1alpha expression in the skeletal muscle rapidly change in response to acute cold, suggesting the possibility that these two genes could be involved in the increase in muscle mass and transformation of fiber type, respectively, at the initial stage of adaptation in cold-exposed chicks.

DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate mitigates maternal hyperthermia-induced pre-implantation embryonic death accompanied by a reduction of physiological oxidative stress in mice

Maternal hyperthermia induces pre-implantation embryo death, which is accompanied by enhanced physiological oxidative stress. We evaluated whether the administration of DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate (TA) to hyperthermic mothers mitigated pre-implantation embryo death. Mice were exposed to heat stress (35 degrees C, 60% relative humidity) for 12 h or not heated (25 degrees C) on the day of mating. Twelve hours before the beginning of temperature treatment, TA was injected intraperitoneally at a dose of 1 g/kg body weight. After the treatment, zygotes were recovered and the developmental abilities and intracellular glutathione (GSH) levels were evaluated. Another set of mice, with or without TA treatment, was exposed to heat stress for 12, 24 and 36 h, and the urinary levels of the oxidative stress marker 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were measured. Heat stress significantly decreased the blastocyst development rate and the GSH content in zygotes, as compared with the non-heat-stressed embryos, while TA administration significantly mitigated the deleterious effects of heat stress with regard to both parameters. Moreover, although the urinary levels of 8-OHdG gradually increased according to the duration of heat exposure, with or without TA administration, the levels were lower in the TA-administered group than in the placebo-injected mice. These results suggest that heat stress enhances physiological oxidative stress, and that TA administration alleviates the hyperthermia-induced death of pre-implantation embryos by reducing physiological oxidative stress.

Transformation of Skeletal Muscle from Fast- to Slow-Twitch during Acquisition of Cold Tolerance in the Chick

Although birds lack brown adipose tissue, a thermogenic organ found in mammals, they possess other thermogenic mechanisms. In the current studies, we examined the molecular mechanisms of avian thermogenesis by studying how chicks acquire cold tolerance. We found that the acquisition of cold tolerance corresponded with an increase in the redness of the skeletal muscle, suggesting an increase in slow-twitch muscle fiber. This was confirmed by histological analysis. In addition, in chicks acquiring cold tolerance, there was an enhanced expression of the chicken homologue of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1alpha, a protein involved in adaptive thermogenesis in mammalian brown adipose tissue and in slow-twitch fiber formation in mammalian skeletal muscle. Subtraction and differential display techniques further showed that, when chicks acquired cold tolerance, the expression of genes associated with slow-twitch fibers increased, whereas those associated with fast-twitch fibers decreased. There was also an enhanced expression of mitochondrial oxidative genes. Together, these results suggest that transformation of skeletal muscle fiber from fast-twitch to slow-twitch is involved in the acquisition of thermogenesis in chicks.