SOX10 Loss Sensitizes Melanoma Cells to Cytokine-Mediated Inflammatory Cell Death

The transcription factor, SOX10, plays an important role in the differentiation of neural crest precursors to the melanocytic lineage. Malignant transformation of melanocytes leads to the development of melanoma, and SOX10 promotes melanoma cell proliferation and tumor formation. SOX10 expression in melanomas is heterogeneous, and loss of SOX10 causes a phenotypic switch toward an invasive, mesenchymal-like cell state and therapy resistance; hence, strategies to target SOX10-deficient cells are an active area of investigation. The impact of cell state and SOX10 expression on antitumor immunity is not well understood but will likely have important implications for immunotherapeutic interventions. To this end, we tested whether SOX10 status affects the response to CD8+ T cell-mediated killing and T cell-secreted cytokines, TNFα and IFNγ, which are critical effectors in the cytotoxic killing of cancer cells. We observed that genetic ablation of SOX10 rendered melanoma cells more sensitive to CD8+ T cell-mediated killing and cell death induction by either TNFα or IFNγ. Cytokine-mediated cell death in SOX10-deficient cells was associated with features of caspase-dependent pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death that has the potential to increase immune responses.

IMPLICATIONS

These data support a role for SOX10 expression altering the response to T cell-mediated cell death and contribute to a broader understanding of the interaction between immune cells and melanoma cells.

Raptinal Induces Gasdermin E-Dependent Pyroptosis in Naïve and Therapy-Resistant Melanoma

Lack of response and acquired resistance continue to be limitations of targeted and immune-based therapies. Pyroptosis is an inflammatory form of cell death characterized by the release of inflammatory damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMP) and cytokines via gasdermin (GSDM) protein pores in the plasma membrane. Induction of pyroptosis has implications for treatment strategies in both therapy-responsive, as well as resistance forms of melanoma. We show that the caspase-3 activator, raptinal, induces pyroptosis in both human and mouse melanoma cell line models and delays tumor growth in vivo. Release of DAMPs and inflammatory cytokines was dependent on caspase activity and GSDME expression. Furthermore, raptinal stimulated pyroptosis in melanoma models that have acquired resistance to BRAF and MEK inhibitor therapy. These findings add support to efforts to induce pyroptosis in both the treatment-naïve and resistant settings.

IMPLICATIONS

Raptinal can rapidly induce pyroptosis in naïve and BRAFi plus MEKi-resistant melanoma, which may be beneficial for patients who have developed acquired resistance to targeted therapies.

Targeting SOX10-deficient cells to reduce the dormant-invasive phenotype state in melanoma

Cellular plasticity contributes to intra-tumoral heterogeneity and phenotype switching, which enable adaptation to metastatic microenvironments and resistance to therapies. Mechanisms underlying tumor cell plasticity remain poorly understood. SOX10, a neural crest lineage transcription factor, is heterogeneously expressed in melanomas. Loss of SOX10 reduces proliferation, leads to invasive properties, including the expression of mesenchymal genes and extracellular matrix, and promotes tolerance to BRAF and/or MEK inhibitors. We identify the class of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1/2 (cIAP1/2) inhibitors as inducing cell death selectively in SOX10-deficient cells. Targeted therapy selects for SOX10 knockout cells underscoring their drug tolerant properties. Combining cIAP1/2 inhibitor with BRAF/MEK inhibitors delays the onset of acquired resistance in melanomas in vivo. These data suggest that SOX10 mediates phenotypic switching in cutaneous melanoma to produce a targeted inhibitor tolerant state that is likely a prelude to the acquisition of resistance. Furthermore, we provide a therapeutic strategy to selectively eliminate SOX10-deficient cells.

SOX10 requirement for melanoma tumor growth is due, in part, to immune-mediated effects

Developmental factors may regulate the expression of immune modulatory proteins in cancer, linking embryonic development and cancer cell immune evasion. This is particularly relevant in melanoma because immune checkpoint inhibitors are commonly used in the clinic. SRY-box transcription factor 10 (SOX10) mediates neural crest development and is required for melanoma cell growth. In this study, we investigate immune-related targets of SOX10 and observe positive regulation of herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) and carcinoembryonic-antigen cell-adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1). Sox10 knockout reduces tumor growth in vivo, and this effect is exacerbated in immune-competent models. Modulation of CEACAM1 expression but not HVEM elicits modest effects on tumor growth. Importantly, Sox10 knockout effects on tumor growth are dependent, in part, on CD8+ T cells. Extending this analysis to samples from patients with cutaneous melanoma, we observe a negative correlation with SOX10 and immune-related pathways. These data demonstrate a role for SOX10 in regulating immune checkpoint protein expression and anti-tumor immunity in melanoma.

Abstract 40: Targeting SOX10-deficient cells to reduce resistance to targeted therapy in melanoma

Intratumoral heterogeneity and cellular plasticity enable tumors to alter phenotypes and adapt to foreign microenvironments and resist targeted inhibitors. While the ability to switch between phenotypic states has been broadly characterized, the key mechanisms that underlie tumor plasticity remain poorly understood. We studied the neural crest lineage transcription factor, SOX10, in the context of cutaneous melanoma and resistance to targeted therapies. SOX10 is heterogeneously expressed in melanoma samples. Using bio-informatics as well as in vivo and 3D in vitro melanoma models, SOX10 loss was sufficient to induce an invasive but slow proliferating phenotype in vitro and in vivo that was associated with expression of a mesenchymal gene set. Interestingly, while SOX10 knockout initially induced a targeted inhibitor tolerant state, longer exposure of co-mixed populations of SOX10 proficient and SOX10 deficient to targeted therapy drives the clonal selection of SOX10 knockout cells. Furthermore, cell lines generated from xenograft tumors that have acquired resistance to either vemurafenib, paradox-breaking BRAFi or the combination of BRAFi + MEKi showed dramatically reduced SOX10 expression compared to their parental counterparts. Altogether these data suggest that acquired resistant clones may arise from drug tolerant persister cells. As a strategy to selectively target this invasive, drug-tolerant SOX10-deficient sub-population, we screened a drug compound library and identified a class of cIAP1/2 inhibitors to be synthetically lethal for SOX10-deficient cells. Our preliminary data suggest that birinapant can delay or prevent resistance to BRAFi/MEKi in vivo. Together, these data suggest that SOX10 mediates phenotypic switching in cutaneous melanoma and enables tumor adaptation to altered microenvironments and drug treatments which could be targeted using cIAP1/2 inhibitors.

Citation Format: Claudia Capparelli, Timothy J. Purwin, Manoela Tiago, Nicole Wilski, Danielle Pomante, McKenna Glasheen, Sheera Rosenbaum, Mai Q. Nguyen, Weijia Cai, Richard Zheng, Gaurav Kumar, Inna Chervoneva, Ayako Shimada, Adam E. Snook, Paolo Fortina, Xiaowei Xu, Kim Hookim, Edna Cukierman, Michael A. Davies, Meenhard Herlyn, Andrew E. Aplin. Targeting SOX10-deficient cells to reduce resistance to targeted therapy in melanoma [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2021; 2021 Apr 10-15 and May 17-21. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(13_Suppl):Abstract nr 40.

[Clinico-radiographic evaluation of relations between the spinal curve and malocclusion]

Authors examined 36 children with kyphosis, lordosis and malocclusions. Taking also radiographs into account, a statistical study has been done. Three significant correlations were found: between lordosis and ANB, lordosis and SNA and between FR and CV Angle. The last one was a confirmation of a previous study by Solow.