Androgen receptor alterations in prostate cancer relapsed during a combined androgen blockade by orchiectomy and bicalutamide

Mechanisms of prostate cancer (CaP) recurrence during a combined androgen blockade (CAB) are poorly understood. Previously, the role of androgen receptor (AR) gene mutations underlying the CAB therapy relapse has been raised. To investigate the hypothesis that AR gene aberrations are involved in CAB relapse, 11 locally recurrent CaP samples from patients treated with orchiectomy and bicalutamide were analyzed for copy number changes and DNA sequence alterations of the AR gene by fluorescence in situ hybridization and single-strand conformation polymorphism, respectively. Altogether, base changes were detected in four tumors (36%). Three of them were missense mutations (G166S, W741C, M749I) and two were silent polymorphisms. Interestingly, none of the tumors had AR amplification. These data suggest that different AR variants are developed and selected for during various types of hormonal treatments, and also, that CAB achieved by orchiectomy and bicalutamide does not act as a selective force for AR amplification.

Chromosomal changes in locally recurrent, hormone-refractory prostate carcinomas by karyotyping and comparative genomic hybridization

The genetic mechanisms of prostate cancer recurrence during hormonal therapy are largely unknown. So far, data from conventional karyotype analysis on hormone-refractory prostate carcinomas have not been published, mainly because of the difficulties in obtaining fresh hormone-refractory prostate carcinoma samples and getting metaphases from them. Here, we have studied chromosomal changes in 12 locally recurrent, hormone-refractory prostate carcinomas using karyotyping and CGH that revealed genetic aberrations in all tumors. Loss of the Y chromosome was the most common (89%) finding, and tetraploidy or near-tetraploidy was detected in all tumors. Also non-random translocations were found in 56% of the tumors. The present study indicates that clonal chromosomal aberrations in hormone-refractory prostate carcinomas are more common than in untreated primary tumors, and also, further studies on the frequency and significance of translocations in prostate carcinoma progression during hormonal therapy are warranted.

Association of E-cadherin germ-line alterations with prostate cancer

In our recent cancer registry-based study, the incidence of gastric carcinoma was increased up to 5-fold in male relatives of early-onset prostate cancer (PCA) patients. This association may reflect the influence of genetic factors predisposing individuals to both tumor types. Germ-line mutations of the CDH1 gene at 16q have recently been associated with familial gastric cancer. Furthermore, two genome-wide linkage studies of PCA recently reported positivity at 16q. We therefore identified families and individual patients with both gastric and PCA and investigated whether the CDH1 gene mutations were involved in cancer predisposition in these cases. Fifteen of the 180 Finnish hereditary PCA families (8.3%) had one or more gastric cancer cases. No truncating or splice site CDH1 mutations were identified by PCR single-strand conformational polymorphism in these families or in eight individual patients who had both prostate and gastric cancer. However, a novel S270A missense mutation in exon 6 of the CDH1 gene was seen in a single family with four prostate and two gastric cancers. A large-scale population-based survey indicated a higher prevalence of S270A among both familial PCA cases (3.3%; n = 120; P = 0.01) and unselected PCA patients (1.5%; n = 472; P = 0.12) as compared with blood donors serving as population controls (0.5%; n = 923). We conclude that individual rare mutations and polymorphisms in the CDH1 gene, such as S270A, may contribute to the onset of PCA and warrant further investigations in other populations. However, the CDH1 gene does not appear to explain the link between prostate and gastric cancer.

Loss of heterozygosity and lack of mutations of the XPG/ERCC5 DNA repair gene at 13q33 in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Three regions of chromosome 13 were previously identified for having loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in human prostate cancer. One of them, at 13q33, was defined by LOH at markers D13S158 and D13S280. The XPG/ERCC5 gene, a DNA repair gene that when mutated in the germline leads to xeroderma pigmentosum, has been mapped to 13q33, within one megabase of D13S158 and D13S280. This paper describes LOH and mutational analysis of the XPG gene in human prostate cancers, in order to determine whether the XPG gene is involved in the development of prostate cancer.

METHODS

LOH of the XPG gene was analyzed in 40 primary prostate cancers and 14 metastases by using the microsatellite assay, and its mutations were examined in 5 cell lines, 14 metastases, and 8 tumors with LOH at 13q33 by using the single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP)-direct DNA sequencing analysis.

RESULTS

Four of the 29 (14%) informative primary tumors and 4 of 8 (50%) metastases showed LOH for the XPG gene. Analysis of the 8 tumors with LOH at the 13q33 region, 14 metastases, and 5 cell lines of prostate cancer revealed two polymorphisms but no mutation of the gene. The polymorphism in exon 2 did not change the amino-acid sequence of the XPG protein, but the exon 15 polymorphism altered codon 1104 from histidine to aspartic acid. The two polymorphisms also occurred in individuals without prostate cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

LOH at XPG in prostate cancer supports the conclusion that the 13q33 region contains a gene important in the development of prostate cancer, while lack of mutations of the gene suggests that XPG is not the target gene involved.

Three distinct regions of allelic loss at 13q14, 13q21-22, and 13q33 in prostate cancer

Chromosome 13 is one of the most frequently altered chromosomes in cancer, including carcinoma of the prostate. Two known tumor suppressor genes, RB1 and BRCA2, map to chromosome 13; however, recent reports suggest that unknown genes on 13q are more likely to be involved in the development of prostate cancer. In order more fully to define the genetic changes on chromosome 13 in prostate neoplasms, we analyzed 27 polymorphic microsatellite markers spanning the q arm for loss of heterozygosity in 40 primary tumors and in metastases from 11 other patients who died of prostate cancer. Of the 40 primary tumors, 23 (58%) showed LOH for at least one marker. Three distinct regions at q14, q21-22, and q33, defined by markers D13S267-->D13S153, D13S166-->D13S1225, and D13S259-->D13S274, showed the most frequent LOH, suggesting their involvement in the development of prostate cancer. For the 12 patients whose tumors showed LOH at these markers, the average age at diagnosis was 58 years, which was younger than that (63 years, P < 0.05) for the 28 patients whose tumors lacked LOH. Ten of the 11 (91%) metastases showed LOH with one or more markers. Two of the three most frequently deleted regions (i.e., q14 and q21-22) in the primary tumors and markers linked to the RB1, BRCA2, and EDNRB genes showed high frequencies (56-71%) of LOH in metastases. These results demonstrate that allelic loss on chromosome 13 at q14, q21-22, and q33 occurs in a subset of primary prostate tumors and is a frequent event in metastatic lesions of prostate cancer.

PTEN/MMAC1 is infrequently mutated in pT2 and pT3 carcinomas of the prostate

Deletion of the q23-24 region of human chromosome 10 is one of the most frequent genetic alterations in prostate cancer, suggesting that inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene in this region is involved in the development or progression of this carcinoma. A candidate gene, PTEN/MMAC1, has been identified from this chromosomal region; mutations of this gene have been found in various advanced tumors and cell lines including those of prostate cancer. To further define the role of PTEN/MMAC1 in the development of prostate cancer and its spectrum of genetic alterations, we analysed 40 pT2 or pT3 prostate tumors for allelic loss, mutations, and homozygous deletions using PCR-based methods. Six tumors showed loss of heterozygosity for one of the ten markers analysed, while one tumor showed loss of two markers. None of the markers within PTEN/MMAC1 was lost. Direct sequencing of PCR amplified exons and intron/exon junctions of all 40 tumors revealed three sequence variants, one of which was a point mutation in exon 9, while the other two were polymorphisms. Using multiplex PCR, no homozygous deletions were detected in any of the neoplasms. Our results showing a low frequency of alterations of PTEN/MMAC1 in pT2 and pT3 prostate cancers suggest that this gene plays an insignificant role in the development of most low stage carcinomas of the prostate.

Genetic alterations in prostate cancer cell lines detected by comparative genomic hybridization

Recent studies have identified several chromosomal regions that are altered in prostate cancer. However, the specific genes affected are, in most of the cases, not known. Cancer cell lines could provide a valuable resource for cloning of genes that are commonly affected in cancer. The first step in the identification of such genes is the detection of chromosomal aberrations. Here, we have used comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) to screen for genetic alterations in four prostate cancer cell lines, LNCaP, DU145, PC-3, and TSU-Pr1. The analysis showed that, except for the LNCaP, these cell lines contained many genetic changes (> or = 10 per cell line), suggesting that they resemble genetically more closely hormone-refractory or metastatic than primary prostate carcinomas. All the chromosomal regions that have been implicated in prostate cancer were altered in at least one of the cell lines. The most common genetic changes were gain at 11q and losses at 6q, 9p, and 13q, each present in at least three cell lines. Identification of genetic aberrations by CGH in these cell lines should facilitate the choice of individual cell lines for cloning of genes that are involved in the development and progression of prostate cancer.

Consistent genetic alterations in xenografts of proximal stomach and gastro-esophageal junction adenocarcinomas

The genetic alterations underlying the development of gastric and gastro-esophageal carcinoma remain largely undefined. DNA copy number changes were determined by comparative genomic hybridization in eight xenografts of proximal gastric and gastro-esophageal junction adenocarcinomas of the intestinal type. All tumors exhibited DNA copy number changes, with a total of 139 changes detected (range, 11-24 per tumor; mean = 17), indicating numerous and widespread alterations within these cancers. Gains (65%) in DNA copy number were more frequent than losses (35%). Our most striking finding was gain (all eight cases) or high-level amplification (four cases) in 20q, with a minimal common overlapping region at 20q13. Other frequent gains were observed at 6p, 7q, and 17q (six cases each) and at 1q, 2q, and 8q (five cases each). Frequent losses were observed at 4q and 5q (six cases each) and at 9p (five cases). No differences in DNA copy number changes were seen in tumors arising from the gastro-esophageal junction compared to those of the proximal stomach. The presence of common and consistent DNA copy number changes in these tumors implicate a number of chromosomal regions that may harbor important genes that are involved in tumorigenesis of the proximal stomach and gastro-esophageal junction.

Genetic changes associated with the acquisition of androgen-independent growth, tumorigenicity and metastatic potential in a prostate cancer model

Genetic changes underlying the progression of human prostate cancer are incompletely understood. Recently, an experimental model system that resembles human prostate cancer progression was developed based on the serial passage of an androgen-responsive, non-tumorigenic LNCaP prostate cancer cell line into athymic castrated mice. Six different sublines, derived after one, two or three rounds of in vivo passage, sequentially acquired androgen independence and tumorigenicity as well as metastatic capacity. Here, we used comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and locus-specific fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis to search for genetic changes that may underlie the phenotypic progression events in this model system. Six genetic aberrations were seen by CGH in the parental LNCaP cell line. The derivative sublines shared virtually all these changes, indicating a common clonal origin, but also contained 3-7 additional genetic changes. Gain of the 13q12-q13 chromosomal region as well as losses of 4, 6q24-qter, 20p and 21q were associated with androgen independence and tumorigenicity with additional changes correlating with metastasis. In conclusion, an accumulation of genetic changes correlates with tumour progression in this experimental in vivo model of prostate cancer progression. It is possible that the specific chromosomal aberrations involved in this model system may provide clues to the location of genes involved in human prostate cancer progression and metastasis.

Genetic changes in primary and recurrent prostate cancer by comparative genomic hybridization

Genetic changes leading to the development of prostate cancer and factors that underlie the clinical progression of the disease are poorly characterized. Here, we used comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) to screen for DNA sequence copy number changes along all chromosomes in 31 primary and 9 recurrent uncultured prostate carcinomas. The aim of the study was to identify those chromosome regions that contain genes important for the development of prostate cancer and to identify genetic markers of tumor progression. CGH analysis indicated that 74% of primary prostate carcinoma showed DNA sequence copy number changes. Losses were 5 times more common than gains and most often involved 8p (32%), 13q (32%), 6q (22%), 16q (19%), 18q (19%), and 9p (16%). Allelic loss studies with 5 polymorphic microsatellite markers for 4 different chromosomes were done from 13 samples and showed a 76% concordance with CGH results. In local recurrences that developed during endocrine therapy, there were significantly more gains (P < 0.001) and losses (P < 0.05) of DNA sequences than in primary tumors, with gains of 8q (found in 89% of recurrences versus 6% of primary tumors), X (56% versus 0%), and 7 (56% versus 10%), as well as loss of 8p (78% versus 32%), being particularly often involved. In conclusion, our CGH results indicate that losses of several chromosomal regions are common genetic changes in primary tumors, suggesting that deletional inactivation of putative tumor suppressor genes in these chromosomal sites is likely to underlie development of prostate cancer. Furthermore, the pattern of genetic changes seen in recurrent tumors with the frequent gains of 7, 8q, and X suggests that the progression of prostate cancer and development of hormone-independent growth may have a distinct genetic basis. These chromosome aberrations may have diagnostic utility as markers of prostate cancer progression.

Fine specificity of the B-cell epitopes recognized in HIV-1 NEF by human sera

We have previously used partially overlapping synthetic nonapeptides to characterize the human natural antibody response against HIV-1 negative regulatory factor (NEF), and identified nine 5 to 13 amino acid long regions that were recognized by sera of HIV-1-infected individuals. In this report we define the minimal size of these epitopes with the use of shorter, from 3 to 8 amino acid long partially overlapping peptides covering the complete sequence of the previously identified reacting regions and the N- and C-terminal flanking sequences. We also introduce a new method for the analysis of the reactivities obtained with peptides of different lengths. In six of the antigenic regions the epitopes were found to be noncontiguous and to consist of multiple, down to three amino acid long separate reactive stretches (epitope 1: WSK, VGW, TVRERMRR; epitope 3A: PLRPM, SHFLK; epitope 3B: SQRRQD, DLW; epitope 3C: IYHT, QGYFPDWQN; epitope 4: SLL, VSL; epitope 5: EVLEWRFDSR, VAR). Three epitopes were clearly linear (epitope 2: CAWLE; epitope 3D: LTFGWC; epitope 6: PEYF). Interestingly, five of the minimized B-cell epitopes (1, 3A, 3C, 3D, 5) recognized by human sera overlap totally or partly with the previously identified T-cell epitopes in HIV-1 NEF. Also, only three of the epitopes (3C, 3D, 5) were in a computer-based homology search shown to contain strictly NEF-specific sequences.