Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy

Wastewater treatment plants are known to be relevant input sources of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the aquatic environment. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, fate, and seasonal variability of twenty-five PFAS in four municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP A, B, C, and D) surrounding the city of Milan (Northern, Italy). Composite 24-h wastewater samples were collected in July and October 2021 and May and February 2022 from influents and effluents of the four WWTPs. PFAS were detected at concentrations ranging between 24.1 and 66.9 μg L-1 for influent and 13.4 and 107 μg L-1 for effluent wastewater samples. Perfluoropentanoic acid was the most abundant (1.91-30.0 μg L-1) in influent samples, whereas perfluorobutane sulfonic acid predominated (0.80-66.1 μg L-1) in effluent samples. In sludge, PFOA was detected in plant A at concentrations in the range of 96.6-165 ng kg-1 dw in primary sludge samples and 98.6-440 ng kg-1 dw in secondary treatment sludge samples. The removal efficiency of total PFAS varied between 6 % and 96 %. However, an increase of PFAS concentrations was observed from influents to effluents for plant D (during July and October), plant A (during October and May), and plant C (during May) indicating that biotransformation of PFAS precursors can occur during biological treatments. This was supported by the observed increase in concentrations of PFOA from primary to secondary treatment sludge samples in plant A. Moreover, the plant operating at shorter hydraulic retention times (plant D) showed lower removal efficiency (<45 %). Seasonal variation of PFAS in influent and effluent appears rather low and more likely due to pulse release instead of seasonal factors.

Laboratory and on-road testing for brake wear particle emissions: a review

Brake wear emission is a significant contributor to vehicle-related particulate matter, especially in areas with high traffic density and braking frequency. Only recently, non-exhaust emissions from car brake wear have been regulated under Euro 7 regulation, which introduces emission limits for both brake and tires. It also introduces a standard brake particle assessment procedure which includes sampling procedure and measurement techniques defined in the Global Technical Regulation on brakes from light-duty vehicles up to 3.5 t. Over the years, various experimental setups have been tried leading to non-comparable results. The brake wear particle emissions, expressed as emission factors, are mostly estimated as particle mass or particle number and described using different units (e.g., mg/stop brake, mg/km brake; particle number/cm3) making the comparison between studies very difficult. The aim of the present literature review is to present the state-of-the-art of different experimental methods tuned for assessing brake wear emissions, including electric vehicles. The experiments are carried in close, semi-closed, and open systems, and depending on the experimental design, different sampling methods are applied to reduce particle transport loss and guarantee the efficiency of the particle sampling. Driving condition (e.g., speed and applied pressure), formulation of brake materials, and friction temperature have been found to strongly affect the emission characteristics of brake particles, and this needs to be considered when designing study procedures. The findings reported in this review can be beneficial to policy makers and researchers.

Particle and gas phase sampling of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs by activated carbon fiber and GC/MS analysis

Polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs), and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) are semi-volatile compounds and can be partitioned in the atmosphere between the gas and particulate phase, due to their physicochemical properties. For this reason, the reference standard methods for air sampling include a quartz fiber filter (QFF) for the particulate and a polyurethane foam (PUF) cartridge for the vapor phase, and it is the classical and most popular sampling method in the air. Despite the presence of the two adsorbing media, this method cannot be used for the study of the gas-particulate distribution, but only for a total quantification. This study presents the results and the performance aim to validate an activated carbon fiber (ACF) filter for the sampling of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) using laboratory and field tests. The specificity, precision, and accuracy of the ACF in relation to the QFF + PUF were evaluated through the isotopic dilution technique, the recovery rates, and the standard deviations. Then the ACF performance was assessed on real samples, in a naturally contaminated area, through parallel sampling with the reference method (QFF + PUF). The QA/QC was defined according to the standard methods ISO 16000-13 and -14 and EPA TO4A and 9A. Data confirmed that ACF meets the requirements for the quantification of native POPs compounds in atmospheric and indoor samples. In addition, ACF provided accuracy and precision comparable to those offered by standard reference methods using QFF + PUF, but with significant savings in terms of time and costs.

Extractable denuders for selective sampling of vapour phase organics in the atmosphere

Extractable denuders were designed to collect trace atmospheric semivolatile organic compounds with high volume (38.30 and 200 L/ min) samplers. Denuders were made of multichannel ceramic support coated with sodium silicate and functionalised with phenyl moieties. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans and chlorobenzenes in ambient air of a sub-urban area of Monterotondo, Italy, were sampled. Samplings were of 24 h, 48 h and 1 week period. Precision was determined using field triplicates and compared to the conventional high volume sampler methods. The fraction of analytes in the particle phase measured with the filter/ PUF system ranged from 0.2 % for naphthalene to 98.5 % for benzo(ghi)perylene; this fraction measured with the denuder ranged from 0.5 % for naphthalene to 99.0 % for benzo(ghi)perylene. A paired t-test indicated that these values were significantly (t = 3.58, P < 0.01) higher for the denuder. Results showed good repeatability (0.4-4.6 %), sampling efficiency (>99 %) and good capacity as variations in experimental efficiency were not observed also for longer (1 week) period sampling. As significant changes in efficiency were observed (0.7-5.6 %), the developed denuder cannot be reused more than once. However, it is possible to regenerate the denuder with a new silanization step. A good linear correlation was found plotting the vapour/particle distribution ratio versus the vapour pressure (R2 ranged between 0.59 and 0.84) and versus the octanol/air partition coefficient (R2 ranged between 0.85 and 0.88) of each selected SVOCs, in good agreement with the theoretical models for partitioning of SVOCs.

Activated Porous Carbon Fiber: New Adsorbent for Sampling and Analysis by Thermal Desorption of Siloxanes in Biogas and Biomethane

The growing global energy demand requires the continuous development and optimization of the production of alternative energy sources. According to the circular economy approach, waste conversion into biogas and biomethane represent an interesting energy source. The input into the distribution network and energy conversion systems of biomethane requires quality monitoring and the use of cleaning up systems. Therefore, there is a need to constantly invest in the development of sampling and analysis systems that save time, costs, and materials. The purpose of this study was to use activated porous carbon fiber (APCF), an extremely versatile material for sampling and analysis by thermal desorption, to show the advantages it has over the adsorbents traditionally used for siloxane monitoring. Siloxanes are among the contaminating compounds that are mainly present in biogas and biomethane, and if not removed sufficiently, they endanger the quality and use of the gas. These are highly harmful compounds since during combustion, they produce quartz particles that are abrasive to the surfaces of the materials involved in the energy production process. In addition, siloxanes directly hinder the energy properties of biomethane during combustion, due to their radical scavenger properties. In this work, the efficiency of APCF tube was evaluated by comparing it with common multilayer tube thought sampling and analyzing siloxanes in lab scale and in real scale (biogas plant). Thermal desorption analysis coupled with GC-MS for the determination of siloxanes showed that the use of APCF allows to obtain better performance. This allows to deduce that APCF is an innovative material for the establishment of a better sampling and analysis method than the current ones, enabling better results to be achieved in the process of monitoring fuel quality in biomethane production and storage facilities.

Dataset of PAHs determined in home-made honey samples collected in Central Italy by means of DLLME-GC-MS and cluster analysis for studying the source apportionment

This paper would like to show all the data related to an intensive field campaign focused on the characterization of the Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) composition profile in almost 60 honey samples collected in Central Italy. The analytical data here reported are the base for a study aimed to identify the pollution sources in a region. 22 PAHs were analyzed by means of ultrasound-vortex-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction (DLLME) procedure followed by a triple quadrupole gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC-MS). A chemometrics approach has been carried out for evaluating all the data: in particular, principal component analysis and cluster analysis has been used both for the identification of the main natural/anthropogenic pollutants affecting a site and for evaluating the air quality.

Comparative treatments of a green tattoo ink with Ruby, Nd:YAG nano- and picosecond lasers in normal and array mode

The tattoos removal has become an issue upon spread of the tattooing practice worldwide and hindsight regrets. Lasers are typically used for the purpose, though some colours such as green are considered “recalcitrant” to the treatment. In the current investigation, we aim at determining the efficacy of removal of a green ink water dispersion, using 5 laser treatments: Nd:YAG nano- and picosecond lasers in normal and array mode and Ruby nanosecond laser, keeping the total irradiated energy constant. The UV–Vis spectroscopy of the treated samples indicate that Nd:YAG picosecond laser is most effective, and the Ruby nanosecond laser is the least efficient. Fragment compounds generated from the pigment and siloxanes are common to all treatments, whereas hydrocarbon emerge by a larger amount upon Nd:YAG nanosecond treatment. Fibres are formed upon picosecond treatments and when operating in array mode, and lamellae are achieved by Ruby nanosecond laser treatment. Residual particles suspensions are very heterogeneous upon nanosecond treatments.

The vehicle braking systems as main source of inhalable airborne magnetite particles in trafficked areas

Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nano-particles (MNPs) have been found in human tissues and causally linked to serious illnesses. The possible negative role of MNPs has been not still fully ascertained even though MNPs might cause health effects due to their magnetic property, redox activity and surface charge. The origin of MNPs in human tissues still remains to be unambiguously identified since biological processes, natural phenomena and anthropogenic production have been proposed. According to this latter increasingly convincing hypothesis, anthropogenic MNPs might enter mainly in the human body via inhalation, penetrate deeply into the lungs and in the alveoli and also migrate into the blood circulation and gather in the extrapulmonary organs and central nervous system. In order to identify the releasing source of the potentially inhalable MNPs, we pioneered an innovative approach to rapidly investigate elemental profile and morphology of a large number of airborne micron and sub-micron-sized Fe-bearing particles (FePs). The study was performed by collecting a large amount of micron and sub-micron sized inhalable airborne FePs in trafficked and densely frequented areas of Rome (Italy). Then, we have investigated individually the elemental profile and morphology of the collected particles by means of high-spatial resolution scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy and an automated software purposely developed for the metal-bearing particles analysis. On the basis of specific elemental tracing features, the investigation reveals that almost the total amount of the airborne FePs is released by the vehicle braking systems mainly in the form of magnetite. Furthermore, we point out that our approach might be more generally used to identify the releasing sources of different inorganic airborne particles and to contribute to establish more accurately the impact of specific natural or anthropogenic particles on the environment and human health.

Evaluation of Extraction Procedure of PCDD/Fs, PCBs and Chlorobenzenes from Activated Carbon Fibers (ACFs)

Active carbon-based sorbents are well known and are used in analytical chemistry. Activated carbon fibers (ACFs) are mainly used as abatement systems in industrial emission pollution control. The objective of this study was to extend the use of ACFs in analytical chemistry for the analysis of polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), and chlorobenzenes (CBs). For this purpose, the extraction efficiency was evaluated based on the QA/QC criteria defined by EPA/ISO reference methods on ¹³C-standards recovery rates. The procedures tested were ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE), Soxhlet extraction (SE), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). Each experiment was performed in triplicate to ensure the repeatability of the results, and a second extraction assessed the complete extraction. The comparison of the results of each set of experiments with the minimum requirements of the reference methods for each class of compounds led to SE being chosen as the best technique. SE with toluene resulted in a reduction of time and costs and with respect to the other investigated techniques. The present work demonstrated that ACFs can be used in environmental fields means of both prevention and control (exploiting the adsorbent characteristics) and for analytical purposes (exploiting the desorption) for the described chlorinated classes of pollutants.

Laser vs. thermal treatments of green pigment PG36: coincidence and toxicity of processes

Comparative laser and thermal treatments were carried out on PG36, a green phthalocyanine-based pigment, permitted in European countries where legislation on tattoo composition was issued. Prior to the treatments, PG36 was characterized by SEM imaging, EDX, IR and UV-Vis spectroscopies, revealing an excess of Si and C and O as compared to the pure halogenated Cu-phthalocyanine. Laser treatments were carried out with a Nd:YAG device applied to H₂O and propan-2-ol dispersions. Pyrolysis and calcinations were carried out in air or under N₂ flow. The outcome of the different procedures was analyzed by UV-Vis spectroscopy, GC-mass spectrometry, X-ray diffraction of the solid residues, SEM microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The comparative analysis indicated the production of different fragment compounds depending on the treatment, (pyrolysis or laser), and, to some extent, to the solvent of the dispersion, with pyrolysis generating a larger number of hazardous compounds. Hydrocarbons and cyclic siloxanes present as additives in PG36 were stable or degraded depending on the treatment. The morphology of the products is also treatment-dependent with nanoparticles < 20 nm and fibers being produced upon laser treatments only. Based on the experimental findings, the equivalence of laser and thermal treatments is evaluated.

Evaluation of the concentration of the toxic 2,3,6,7-tetrachlorobiphenylene in air after an electrical material fire

It is known that when fires or explosions involve electrical systems, along with PCDDs and PCDFs, polychlorinated biphenylenes (PCBPs) are also produced. These chlorinated tricyclic aromatic pollutants were noticed in fire rubbles and after the World Trade Center destruction. However, the analytical difficulties in developing an efficient method have limited the knowledge of their environmental distribution. In light of the equipotency of 2,3,6,7-TeCBP and 2,3,7,8-TeCDD, PCBPs call for more accurate investigations. In this paper, for the first time, the level and persistence of 2,3,6,7-TeCBP have been investigated in air samples (both indoor and outdoor) after a fire broke out in an industrial building. GC-MS/MS analysis revealed that 2,3,6,7-TeCBP concentrations after the fire (3046 fg/m³ at the "epicentre") were remarkably higher than that of the 2,3,7,8-TeCDD. Moreover, the monitoring for over two years has demonstrated the persistent nature of this compound. 2,3,6,7-TeCBP was also analyzed in two different ambient air scenario: industrial and periurban areas and in both cases its concentrations were no matter of concern, confirming the correlation of 2,3,6,7-TeCBP with fire episodes. Collectively, 2,3,6,7-TeCBP, because of its toxicity, concentration and persistence, is a crucial compound in the evaluation of the health effects correlated with fires of electrical systems.

Environmental impact of co-combustion of polyethylene wastes in a rice husks fueled plant: Evaluation of organic micropollutants and PM emissions

Co-combustion of biomass and plastic waste has emerged as one of the most promising approach at the plastic waste management challenge. This strategy is particularly attractive since it can simultaneously solve the increasing energy demand and reduce the plastic wastes volume. However, since the combustion of both plastic wastes and natural materials is a potential source of organic micropollutants, such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), beside particulate matter, the environmental sustainability of the waste to energy (WtE) co-combustion strategy has to be assessed. To this end, the emissions of dioxin like (dl)-PCBs, PCDD/Fs and PAHs from a 4-MW thermal power plant fueled with rice husk, partially replaced by end-of-life polyethylene (PE) industrial waste (up to 15% of the thermal power of the plant), were investigated. GC-MS/MS analyses have demonstrated that the co-combustion of PE waste and rice husk presents a profile of environmental sustainability. The concentrations of dl-PCBs, PCDD/Fs and PAHs were extremely low and they have remained almost unaffected by introducing PE in feed. In particular, emissions of PCCD/Fs and dl-PCBs in flue gas were in the range 0.6-1.0 and 0.2-0.6 pg TEQ/Nm³, respectively, while PAHs concentrations ranged from 410 to 825 ng/Nm³. Furthermore, the emission factors of these organic pollutants were found to be lower with PE increasing rate while particulate matter emissions were not affected by co-combustions. Collectively, the investigation has demonstrated that the noils of the industrial PE, due to the low content in halides and metals, can be used as auxiliary fuel and energetically recycled through co-combustion with rice husk. This case of study represents an effective application of the WtE strategy and a concrete approach to mitigate the threat of plastic pollution.

Validation studies on activated carbon fiber passive sampler for PCDD/Fs and PCBs in water

The toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) is well known, and for this reason studying and monitoring these chemicals is fundamental. Activated carbon fibers (ACFs) are made of an adsorbent material widely used in the industrial field for the removal of micropollutants. The first step in this work was to perform a physico-chemical characterization of the adsorbent, focused on the analytical use of it. In particular, its specific surface area was defined around 2500 m²/g consisting in a homogeneous microporosity distribution and the characterization of ACF surface functional groups pointed out a balance between basic and acidic group. The validity of using the ACF as solid phase extraction and as passive sampler for PCDD/Fs and PCBs in water, has been evaluated by the percentage recovery (R %) of ¹³C₁₂-labeled standards of PCDD/Fs and PCBs added in a known volume of water. The results were compared to the R% of Liquid-Liquid Extraction which showed a better reproducibility of the results and the proposed method satisfy completely the requirements of US EPA reference methods.

Volatilization and oxidative artifacts of PM bound PAHs collected at low volume sampling (1): Laboratory and field evaluation

Laboratory and field studies were carried out to assess the effects of oxidative degradation and volatilization on PM₁₀ bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), collected at low volume condition according to the EU sampling reference method EN12341:2014 (flow rate 2.3 m³ h^-1), on 47 mm quartz filters. For the laboratory experiments, pairs of twin samples were collected in field and, after treatments favoring decomposition or/and volatilization of PAHs on one sample, the PAH amount was compared with that of the corresponding untreated sample. Ozone exposure caused a general PAHs decay with more marked effects on benzo [a]pyrene, perylene and benz [a]anthracene; these compounds showed, similarly to benzo [ghi]perylene, correlations between ozone dose and losses. Treatments with zero air exhibited losses due to volatilization even for 5-ring PAHs up to benzo [a]pyrene, whereas a linear dependence was observed between filter PAH load and losses for benzo [a]anthracene, chrysene and benzofluoranthenes. Concentrations on samples collected simultaneously over 48, 24, 12 and 6 h were compared. Results confirmed a lack of temporal auto-consistency in the PAHs sampling methodology here adopted. In particular higher atmospheric PAH concentrations were ascertained on samples constituted by cumulative filters exposed over shorter sampling times. When 24-h and 2 × 12-h samples were compared, comparable losses were evaluated in the hot and cold seasons. This finding shows that, although in summer meteorology conditions favor sampling artifacts, the effectiveness of these phenomena continue in the winter, probably due to the larger amount of PAH available on the sampling filter (total PAHs ∼ 10 vs 0.5 ng m^-3).

Indoor exposure to particles emitted by biomass-burning heating systems and evaluation of dose and lung cancer risk received by population

Homes represent a critical microenvironment in terms of air quality due to the proximity to main particle sources and the lack of proper ventilation systems. Biomass-fed heating systems are still extensively used worldwide, then likely emitting a significant amount of particles in indoor environments. Nonetheless, research on biomass emissions are limited to their effects on outdoor air quality then not properly investigating the emission in indoor environments. To this purpose, the present paper aims to evaluate the exposure to different airborne particle metrics (including both sub- and super-micron particles) and attached carcinogenic compounds in dwellings where three different heating systems were used: open fireplaces, closed fireplaces and pellet stoves. Measurements in terms of particle number, lung-deposited surface area, and PM fraction concentrations were measured during the biomass combustion activities, moreover, PM₁₀ samples were collected and chemically analyzed to obtain mass fractions of carcinogenic compounds attached onto particles. Airborne particle doses received by people exposed in such environments were evaluated as well as their excess lung cancer risk. Most probable surface area extra-doses received by people exposed to open fireplaces on hourly basis (56 mm² h^-1) resulted one order of magnitude larger than those experienced for exposure to closed fireplaces and pellet stoves. Lifetime extra risk of Italian people exposed to the heating systems under investigation were larger than the acceptable lifetime risk (10^-5): in particular, the risk due to the open fireplace (8.8 × 10^-3) was non-negligible when compared to the overall lung cancer risk of typical Italian population.

Volatilization and oxidative artifacts of PM bound PAHs at low volume sampling (2): Evaluation and comparison of mitigation strategies effects

The artifacts induced by oxidative degradation and volatilization were assessed with regards to determination of particulate atmospheric PAHs collected at low volume conditions (2.3 m³ h^-1) according to the EU Reference Method EN 12341:2014. In order to evaluate the oxidative degradation, PAH measures carried out through collecting airborne particulate with and without ozone denuders were examined. Simultaneously, the influence of volatilization was investigated by comparing concentrations of PAHs in particulate samples collected over 24-h and 12-h using conventional instruments. Summer and winter/spring campaigns were carried out in order to assess the influence of environmental contour on the artifact processes. Oxidative degradation led to a general decrease of PAH concentrations in both periods; in particular, the highest losses were observed for benzo[a]pyrene and perylene reaching, in average, ca. 20%. In the summer, the effect of volatilization exceeded that of oxidative degradation for light PAHs up to benzo[e]pyrene. In the winter/spring time, the influence of both artifact typologies could be mitigated by splitting the normal 24-h collection interval starting at midnight into two 12-h intervals. A mitigation of the losses could even be obtained by fixing the start time sampling fixed at noon or in the first hours of the day. Finally, the feasibility of collecting PAHs through prolonged sampling (>1 month) at the flow rate of 1.1 L min^-1 was preliminarily investigated. Results indicated that this approach is unsuitable for minimizing the oxidative artifacts.

Analysis of polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorodibenzofurans in stationary source emissions in GC-MS/MS using hydrogen as the carrier gas

The European and American methods for the determination of polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorodibenzofurans in stationary source emissions require a high-resolution mass spectrometer detector. At the same time, all of the 17 toxic 2,3,7,8-chlorine-substituted isomers have to be separated by an appropriate chromatographic method. The resulting analysis has long runtimes and sometimes a double-column run is needed, which results in a huge waste of time, money and manual labor. To obtain a fast and cost-effective but still reliable analytical system, a single-column gas chromatography with hydrogen as carrier gas and tandem mass spectrometry detection is proposed. The use of hydrogen as the carrier gas is a good choice to shorten runtimes and improve the chromatographic resolution, while tandem mass spectrometry is a well-known alternative for this analysis. All the chromatographic and mass spectrometric parameters fill the requirements of the reference methods with a 35% reduction of runtimes. The accuracy is tested with three fly ash samples of a proficiency interlaboratory test. A good correlation between the results is obtained (R²  = 0.992, slope = 0.9675), and no coelutions are noted. The system robustness is tested during 5 years of constant use and the maximal relative standard deviation of the relative response factor is 18.8%.

Biogas cleaning and upgrading with natural zeolites from tuffs

CO2 adsorption on synthetic zeolites has become a consolidated approach for biogas upgrading to biomethane. As an alternative to synthetic zeolites, tuff waste from building industry was investigated in this study: indeed, this material is available at a low price and contains a high fraction of natural zeolites. A selective adsorption of CO2 and H2S towards CH4 was confirmed, allowing to obtain a high-purity biomethane (CO2 <2 g m(-3), i.e. 0.1%; H2S <1.5 mg m(-3)), suitable for injection in national grids or as vehicle fuel. The loading capacity was found to be 45 g kg(-1) and 40 mg kg(-1), for CO2 and H2S, respectively. Synthetic gas mixtures and real biogas samples were used, and no significant effects due to biogas impurities (e.g. humidity, dust, moisture, etc.) were observed. Thermal and vacuum regenerations were also optimized and confirmed to be possible, without significant variations in efficiency. Hence, natural zeolites from tuffs may successfully be used in a pressure/vacuum swing adsorption process.

GPX4 and GPX7 over-expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma tissues

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer and is still one of the most fatal cancers. Hence, it needs to identify always new putative markers to improve its diagnosis and prognosis. The selenium is an essential trace mineral implicated as a key factor in the early stage of cancer and exerts its biological function through the selenoproteins. In the last years our group has been studying the involvement of some selenoproteins in HCC. However, no many data are reported in literature about the correlation between HCC and the glutathione peroxidases (GPXs), both selenium and non selenium-containing GPXs.

In this paper we have evaluated the GPX4 and GPX7 expression in some paraffin-embedded tissues from liver biopsy of patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related cirrhosis and HCC by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR analysis. Our results evidenced that i) GPX4 and GPX7 had a statistically significant over-expression in HCC tissues compared to cirrhotic counterparts used as non tumor tissues, and ii) their expression was higher in grade III HCC tissues with respect to grade I-II samples. Therefore, we propose to use GPX4 and GPX7 as possible markers for improving HCC diagnosis/prognosis.

Emission of submicron aerosol particles in cement kilns: Total concentration and size distribution

Cement plants are responsible for particle and gaseous emissions into the atmosphere. With respect to particle emission, the greater part of is in the range from 0.05 to 5.0 µm in diameter. In the last years attention was paid to submicron particles, but there is a lack of available data on the emission from stationary sources. In this paper, concentration and size distribution of particles emitted from four cement kilns, in relationship to operational conditions (especially the use of alternative fuel to coal) of the clinker process are reported. Experimental campaigns were carried out by measuring particles concentration and size distribution at the stack of four cement plants through condensation particle counter (CPC) and scanning mobility particle sizer spectrometer (SMPS). Average total particle number concentrations were between 2000 and 4000 particles/cm³, about 8-10 times lower that those found in the corresponding surrounding areas. As for size distribution, for all the investigated plants it is stable with a unimodal distribution (120-150 nm), independent from the fuel used.

Assessment of the Selenoprotein M (SELM) over-expression on human hepatocellular carcinoma tissues by immunohistochemistry

Selenium is an essential trace mineral of fundamental importance to human healthy and exerts its biological function through selenoproteins. In particular, Selenoprotein M (SELM) is located in the endoplasmic reticulum and contains the common redox motif of cysteine-X-X-selenocysteine type. It attracts great attention due to its high expression in brain and its potential roles as antioxidant, neuroprotective, and cytosolic calcium regulator. Recently, our group found SELM over-expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines. In this report some paraffin-embedded tissues from liver biopsy of patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related cirrhosis and HCC were immunohistochemically stained and SELM expression scoring was evaluated. Our results evidence for the first time an increase of SELM expression in HCC liver tissues, and its gradual expression raise associated with an increased malignancy grade. Therefore, we propose to use i) SELM as putative marker for HCC as well as ii) simple immunohistochemistry technique to distinguish between the different grades of malignancy.

Assessment of nitrous oxide emission from cement plants: real data measured with both Fourier transform infrared and nondispersive infrared techniques

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the third most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and methane, and contributes about 6% to the greenhouse effect. Nitrous oxide is a minor component of the atmosphere, and it is a thousand times less than carbon dioxide (CO2). Nevertheless, it is much more potent than CO2 and methane, owing to its long stay in the atmosphere of approximately 120 yr and the high global warmingpotential (GWP) of298 times that of CO2. Although greenhouse gases are natural in the atmosphere, human activities have changed the atmospheric concentrations. Most of the values of emission of nitrous oxide are still obtained by means ofemission factors and not actually measured; the lack ofreal data may result in an underestimation ofcurrent emissions. The emission factors used for the calculation of N2O can be obtained from the "Guidelines for the implementation of the national inventory of emissions" of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which refer to all nations for the realization of their inventory. This study will present real data, measured in several Italian cement plants with different characteristics. The work also shows a comparison between N2O concentration measured with in situ-Fourier transform IR (FTIR) and the reference method EN ISO 21258 based on nondispersive IR (NDIR), in order to investigate the interfering compounds in the measurement with NDIR.

Evaluation of the measurement uncertainty in automated long-term sampling of PCDD/PCDFs

Since the publication of the first version of European standard EN-1948 in 1996, long-term sampling equipment has been improved to a high standard for the sampling and analysis of polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD)/polychlorodibenzofuran (PCDF) emissions from industrial sources. The current automated PCDD/PCDF sampling systems enable to extend the measurement time from 6-8 h to 15-30 days in order to have data values better representative of the real pollutant emission of the plant in the long period. EN-1948:2006 is still the European technical reference standard for the determination of PCDD/PCDF from stationary source emissions. In this paper, a methodology to estimate the measurement uncertainty of long-term automated sampling is presented. The methodology has been tested on a set of high concentration sampling data resulting from a specific experience; it is proposed with the intent that it is to be applied on further similar studies and generalized. A comparison between short-term sampling data resulting from manual and automated parallel measurements has been considered also in order to verify the feasibility and usefulness of automated systems and to establish correlations between results of the two methods to use a manual method for calibration of automatic long-term one. The uncertainty components of the manual method are analyzed, following the requirements of EN-1948-3:2006, allowing to have a preliminary evaluation of the corresponding uncertainty components of the automated system. Then, a comparison between experimental data coming from parallel sampling campaigns carried out in short- and long-term sampling periods is realized. Long-term sampling is more reliable to monitor PCDD/PCDF emissions than occasional short-term sampling. Automated sampling systems can assure very useful emission data both in short and long sampling periods. Despite this, due to the different application of the long-term sampling systems, the automated results could not be directly compared with manual results, not even in terms of measurement uncertainty. This investigation focuses on both uncertainty and repeatability of the automated sampling method. The standard 20988, developed by Internarional Organization of Standardization (ISO) can be used to estimate the measurement uncertainty. The results confirm that the uncertainties of manual and automated methods are comparable. At the same time, it is not appropriate to consider the manual method as a reference for the evaluation of the uncertainty of the automated sampling system, due to the high variability of both systems.

Determination of 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene in industrial emission

A method to measure the emissive concentration of 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene (ENB), a reactive compound used in industrial synthesis of terpolymers, has been developed. The starting points for the development of the presented method are European and Italian reference methods for the quantification of nonreactive volatile organic compounds in industrial emission. In this study, sampling conditions and desorption solvent have been optimized in laboratory and the method was applied in an industrial plant. The laboratory tests showed a good recovery (88-95%). The concentrations of ENB in industrial emission obtained with the developed method were compared with an online gas chromatography-flame ionization results (R (2) > 0.97). In addition, several manual measurements were performed in parallel, and the resulting %RSD repeatability was <9%. The developed method provides a discontinuous technique to measure reactive volatile organic compounds using easy-to-use instruments and assures a very good accuracy and precision even with high-humidity gas flows. The method could be extended to other reactive compounds of the same class.

Biodegradation of α-, β-, and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane by Arthrobacter fluorescens and Arthrobacter giacomelloi

The organochlorine pesticide γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH, lindane) and its non-insecticidal isomers α-, β-, and δ- continue to pose serious environmental and health concerns, although their use has been restricted or completely banned for decades. The present study reports the first results on the ability of two Arthrobacter strains, not directly isolated from a HCH-polluted site, to grow in a mineral salt medium containing α-, β-, or γ-HCH (100 mgl(-1)) as sole source of carbon. Growth of cultures and HCHs degradation by Arthrobacter fluorescens and Arthrobacter giacomelloi were investigated after 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 days of incubation by enumerating colony forming units and GC with ECD detection, respectively. Both bacteria are able to metabolize the HCHs: A. giacomelloi is the most effective one, as after 72 h of incubation it produces 88 % degradation of α-, 60 % of β-, and 56 % of γ-HCH. The formation of possible persistent compounds was studied by GC/MS and by HPLC analysis. Pentachlorocyclohexenes and tetrachlorocyclohexenes have been detected as metabolites, which are almost completely eliminated after 72 h of incubation, while no phenolic compounds were found.

Concentration of organic micropollutants in the atmosphere of Trieste, Italy

PURPOSE

PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and PAHs, ubiquitous environmental pollutants which are part of the POPs, are mainly produced by anthropogenic activities as well as by natural processes. Occurrences of these pollutants in different sites in Trieste are presented. PCDD/Fs distribution and their possible emission sources are discussed.

METHODS

Air samples were collected in different sites near the industrial area, in the city center, and in a background area, using a high-volume sampler equipped with a quartz fiber filter and a PUF. Each sampling lasted a week.

RESULTS

The concentrations of the organochlorinated pollutants are consistent with literature data (ΣPCDD/Fs and Σdl-PCBs were 5-38 fg TEQ/Nm(3) and 4-31 fg TEQ/Nm(3), respectively), and an apparent seasonal trend was found with slightly higher concentrations in the winter and lower levels in both summer campaigns. Moreover, the isomer profile of each sampling campaign was compared to the fingerprint of a sintering plant, a cement plant, and an incinerator, the main industrial activities in Trieste.

CONCLUSIONS

The organic micropollutants were detected in levels consistent with literature data. The results show that the pollutants are uniformally distributed in the atmosphere of Trieste. PCDD/F fingerprints in each site remained almost identical during summer and winter, confirming the yearly prevalence of the emissions from the nearby sintering plant.

Long-term automated sampling of PCDD/PCDF flue gas: current status and critical issues

After entry into force of the Stockholm Convention and Aarhus Protocol and in order to implement the upcoming European legal background, the European countries are asked to apply control measures to reduce the release of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins and furans (PCDD/PCDF) and polychlorinated biphenyls as well as to establish POPs release inventories. In this perspective, development of measuring techniques of emissions is a focal issue in acquiring useful information. In this paper, results of various measurement campaigns at different municipal waste incineration (MWI) plants using long-term automated sampling of PCDD/PCDF are presented. The samples collected from both manual and automated campaigns were analyzed following the European Standard EN-1948:2006 by high-resolution gas chromatograph/high-resolution mass spectrometer. Performances of two different commercial systems have been investigated. Anomalous values occurred during one long-term campaign (22.16 pg I-toxic equivalent (TEQ)/Nm(3)), compared to average values (4-5 pg I-TEQ/Nm(3)) of the MWI. At this maximum value, a main occurrence of abnormal and instable operating conditions has been found. Sampling based on long-term basis was found to be more reliable to monitor PCDD/PCDF emissions than occasional short-term sampling. Nevertheless, the results of long-term campaigns demonstrate that emission levels detected in 15-30 days campaigns, when unsteady operating conditions can occur, as start-up and shut down, are not immediately comparable to the typical levels in a 6-8 h, when operating conditions are generally stable. Moreover, there are often differences observed in the congener profiles between short- and long-term campaigns.

Development of a new automated clean-up system for the simultaneous analysis of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and 'dioxin-like' polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCB) in flue gas emissions by GPC-SPE

A comprehensive clean-up method for quantitative analysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo-furans (PCDD/Fs) in one single extract of environmental samples was developed. Since the chemical nature and toxicity of planar PCBs are similar to those of PCDD/Fs, dioxin-like PCBs and PCDD/Fs are often surveyed together in their exposure assessments. The development of a method for the simultaneous analysis of PCBs and PCDD/Fs in environmental samples is invaluable. The automated clean-up system evaluated in this work consists of three additional steps after traditional extraction: the chromatography on gel permeation (GPC), the concentration of the solvent through the use of an in-line evaporation module and the further purification and separation of PCDDs/Fs and dl-PCBs on an alumina cartridge in the 'SPE module'. In this work, three fly ash samples from an interlaboratory study with different PCDD/F and PCB levels were Soxhlet-extracted and then cleaned up using an automated system. PCDD/Fs and PCBs were determined using isotope dilution and high resolution gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry. The determined values of 17 PCDD/Fs were consistent with the certified values and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the determined values were less than 20%. The recoveries of (13)C labeled PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs, and their RSDs were within the ranges specified in EPA1613 and 1668a methods, respectively. An accurate and reliable method was successfully developed and can be used in the simultaneous analysis of PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs in environmental samples.

Characterization of metalloproteinases, oxidative status and inflammation levels in the different stages of fibrosis in HCV patients

OBJECTIVES

This study was aimed at searching noninvasive markers of the transition from mild to severe fibrosis stage in HCV patients undergoing hepatic fibrosis.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Thirty-three patients affected by chronic HCV vs. twenty healthy donors were evaluated for the serum levels of several circulating matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), TRAIL and β-NGF by multiplex biometric ELISA based immunoassay and anti- and pro-oxidant status (d-ROMs, BAP and NO) using a Diacron automated method.

RESULTS

HCV patients displayed increased expression levels of MMP-8, MMP-9, TRAIL and β-NGF, and an imbalance between pro- and antioxidant status, that contribute to liver fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Since the determination of these parameters represents a reliable and easily applicable method, these parameters are suggested as serum surrogate markers for HCV patients in the routine clinical practice.

Possible social relevance of illicit psychotropic substances present in the atmosphere

Although the worldwide presence of illicit psychotropic compounds in the environment is well known, the social impact of drug abuse on the community has yet to be determined. Besides, the possibility of deriving indicators of the prevalence of drug abuse from the content of illicit substances in the air remains unexplored. In this study, the atmospheric concentrations of psychotropic compounds recorded in Italy were plotted vs. a series of criminal statistics. Meaningful links were found between atmospheric cocaine and the amount of drugs seized, the number of drug related crimes and the demand for clinical treatment recorded in the Italian regions. Atmospheric cocaine and cannabinoids also seemed to be correlated with tumour insurgence and mental disease frequency, respectively. However, further investigations are necessary to elucidate/explain/clarify if the behaviours observed for cocaine vs. the parameters usually adopted to estimate drug abuse prevalence (correspond to an effective relationships)/are directly linked, and to understand why the same approach failed when applied to cannabinoids. Moreover, according to our study illicit drugs are suspected to promote long-term ill health effects even when present at low concentrations the air.

PCDD/Fs removal efficiency by electrostatic precipitator and wetfine scrubber in an iron ore sintering plant

This study investigates the removal efficiency of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) by the APCDs of an iron ore sintering plant, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and a wetfine scrubbing system (WS). The removal efficiencies of the ESP on the total PCDD/Fs concentration and the total PCDD/Fs I-TEQ concentration are 44.3% and 41.4%, respectively, while those of the WS are 66.7% and 68.4%, respectively, but the vapor/solid phase distribution changes after APCDs abatement. At ESP inlet, the PCDD/Fs account for 31.2% in vapor phase and for 68.8% in particulate phase while, at ESP outlet, the PCDD/Fs account for 63.3% in vapor phase and for 36.7% in solid phase. The ESP removes effectively solid-phase PCDD/Fs for its effectiveness to capture the particulate while it is ineffective in removing vapor-phase PCDD/Fs. It, on the contrary, increase for the vaporization within the ESP, especially for these congeners with a lower chlorination degree, and for the PCDD/Fs "stripping" from particulate to gas-phase during the sampling. At WS inlet, the PCDD/Fs account for 63.3% in vapor phase and for 36.7% in solid phase while, at WS outlet, the PCDD/Fs account for 21.4% in vapor phase and for 78.6% in solid phase. Considering that WS outlet temperature is about 40 degrees C, the PCDD/Fs vapor-phase condense to particles: therefore, even if the particulate is removed by WS, the final result is that PCDD/Fs percentage decreases in vapor-phase and increases in solid-phase.

An approach for understanding the inflammation and cancer relationship

It is well known that persistent inflammatory conditions can induce the cancer formation. In fact, cytokines and chemokines play a crucial role in the promoting of angiogenesis, metastasis, and subversion of adaptive immunity. These proteins are involved in cancer-related inflammation and can represent a target for innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies useful to clinical studies.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission profiles and removal efficiency by electrostatic precipitator and wetfine scrubber in an iron ore sintering plant

A monitoring campaign of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated biphenyl was carried out in an Italian iron ore sintering plant by sampling the combustion gases at the electrostatic precipitator (ESP) outlet, at the Wetfine scrubber (WS) outlet, and by collecting the ESP dust. Few data are available on these micropollutants produced in iron ore sintering plants, particularly from Italian plants. This study investigates the PAH emission profiles and the removal efficiency of ESPs and WS. PAHs were determined at the stack, ESP outlet flue gases, and in ESP dust to characterize the emission profiles and the performance of the ESP and the WS for reducing PAH emission. The 11 PAHs monitored are listed in the Italian legislative decree 152/2006. The mean total PAH sum concentration in the stack flue gases is 3.96 microg/N x m3, in ESP outlet flue gases is 9.73 microg/N x m3, and in ESP dust is 0.53 microg/g. Regarding the emission profiles, the most abundant compound is benzo(b)fluoranthene, which has a relative low BaP toxic equivalency factors (TEF) value, followed by dibenzo(a,l)pyrene, which has a very high BaP(TEF) value. The emission profiles in ESP dust and in the flue gases after the ESP show some changes, whereas the fingerprint in ESP and stack flue gases is very similar. The removal efficiency of the ESP and of WS on the total PAH concentration is 5.2 and 59.5%, respectively.

Uncertainties of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon and carbonyl measurements in heavy-duty diesel emission

In this note we describe the speciated particle-phase PM2.5 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and gas-phase carbonyl emissions as collected from a heavy-duty diesel bus outfitted with an oxidation catalyst for exhaust after-treatment. The vehicle was run on a chassis dynamometer during a transient cycle test reproducing a typical city bus route (Azienda Tramviaria Municipalizzata cycle). The diluted tailpipe emissions were sampled for PAH using a 2.5 microm cut size cyclone glass fiber filter assembly, while carbonyls were absorbed onto dinitrophenyl hydrazine-coated silica cartridges. The former compounds were analysed by CGC-MS, the latter by HPLC-UV. Combining the two sets of speciation data resulting from 15 identical dynamometer tests provided a profile of both unregulated organic emissions. PAH emission rates decreased with the number of benzene fused rings. Fluoranthene and pyrene amounted to 90% of total PAHs quantified; six-ring PAHs accounted only for 0.5%. Similarly, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde accounted for approximately 80% of the total carbonyl emissions. Uncertainties of the method in the determination of individual emission factors were calculated. Statistical data processing revealed that all the measurements were quite unaffected by systematic errors and repeatability percentages did not exceed 50% for the majority of components of both groups.

Dioxins and furans formation in pilot incineration tests of sewage sludge spiked with organic chlorine

The factors affecting polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) formation were studied in sewage sludge incineration tests carried out on a demonstrative plant. The plant includes a circulating fluidised bed furnace (FBF) and a rotary kiln furnace (RKF), operating alternatively. During the tests sewage sludge was spiked with chlorinated hydrocarbons and the operating parameters of the afterburning chamber were varied. PCDD/F were sampled in each test before the bag filter, thus collecting the above contaminants before abatement systems. From the tests it appeared that PCDD/F were always produced in more abundance in the tests carried out by FBF than by RKF. The higher PCDD/F concentrations in the tests by FBF were reached when sewage sludge was spiked with a high dosage of a surrogate organic mixture of chlorinated hydrocarbons and when the afterburning chamber was used only as transit equipment with the burner off. The distribution of the different PCDD/F homologues was compared. P5CDFs were generally the prevalent fraction, with very few exceptions for the tests by RKF at high temperature of the afterburning chamber. As for FBF tests, it was found that the PCDD/F homologue profile depends on the afterburning chamber temperature.

Characterisation and evaluation of the emissions from the combustion of Orimulsion-400, coal and heavy fuel oil in a thermoelectric power plant

An experimental campaign was carried out in a thermoelectric power plant in Southern Italy in order to evaluate the emissions released during the utilisation of three different fuels, Orimulsion-400, coal and heavy fuel oil (HFO) with high content of sulphur. Macropollutant concentrations in the exhaust gases were recorded by the continuous monitoring system and the Institute on Atmospheric Pollution of the Italian National Research Council (CNR) carried out samplings and analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and Polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDF), halogenidric acids and metals. The pollutant concentrations, mass flows and emission factors were compared. Each fuel met the air emission limits for all the pollutants. Coal showed the highest emission levels, whilst HFO and Orimulsion were fairly similar. NOx, SO2 and particulate matter showed constant concentration for all the fuels, while Orimulsion and HFO SO2 concentrations were critical at the highest operating power. Orimulsion showed the lowest PAHs values and PCDDs and PCDFs were much lower than the limits, for all the fuels. Particular attention must be paid with vanadium and nickel during Orimulsion utilisation. For these metals mass balances were carried out.

Microorganic pollutants in the outskirts of Rome

A short field campaign was performed in the outskirts of Rome at four sites located pretty along the four rose wind directions to city centre. Both chlorinated (PCB and PCDD/F) and non-chlorinated (n-alkanes, PAH, nitrated-PAH, n-alkanoic acids) organic micropollutants were investigated for their contents in the atmosphere. Concentrations reached by these pollutants in the outskirts were compared to those found in downtown Rome, both inside and outside of its largest city garden. Although concentrations of organic pollutants found in the outskirts were quite low, however they seemed enough high to induce some health risk in humans. Rural sites were less affected than industrial and waste disposal/treatment areas.

[Psychiatric services, social cooperation, voluntary activities. New relationships for new strategies]

OBJECTIVE

Eighteen years after the 1978 reform law no. 180, psychiatric services have to find new roles and goals in the social arena, in order to continue to effectively pursue the improvement of mental health in the community. The aim of the present paper is to show some theoretical and practical elements that could stimulate in the psychiatric services a deep consideration about the relationship between psychiatric services and "private social" bodies, particularly social co-operatives and voluntary organisations.

METHOD

The elements shown in this study come from an analysis: a) of the literature about the crisis factors of the Italian welfare state, particularly in the Public Health Service and in the social assistance; b) of the literature about the development of the "private social" and about the relationship with the public services; c) of national and regional laws, particularly of Veneto region; d) of the present experiences in South Verona Psychiatric Service.

RESULTS

The crisis of the traditional welfare state, the emergence in large sectors of general population of needs related to social fragmentation and relational impoverishment, the aspiration of a great number of individuals excluded from society to benefit of the right to full citizenship, all this urgently questions the traditional roles and responsibilities, the organisation, operational modalities, and the community orientation of existing health and human services. Within this framework, the relationship between psychiatric services (or, broadly speaking, public services in general) and "private social" bodies, particularly social co-operatives and voluntary organisations, has become part of a foreseeing, strategic new awareness of mental health workers.

CONCLUSION

A shift from a relationship of mutual exploitation between organisations, to one of co-operation between them, each considering the other as an equal partner, may be a critical step forward a new model of welfare. This, in turn, would hopefully meet the needs for health of the population in terms of efficiency, quality, relevance and consideration of the users' resources and social competencies.