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Protti G, Rubbi L, Gören T, Sabirli R, Civlan S, Kurt Ö, Türkçüer İ, Köseler A, Pellegrini M. The methylome of buccal epithelial cells is influenced by age, sex, and physiological properties. Physiol Genomics 2023; 55:618-633. [PMID: 37781740 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00063.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic modifications, particularly DNA methylation, have emerged as regulators of gene expression and are implicated in various biological processes and disease states. Understanding the factors influencing the epigenome is essential for unraveling its complexity. In this study, we aimed to identify how the methylome of buccal epithelial cells, a noninvasive and easily accessible tissue, is associated with demographic and health-related variables commonly used in clinical settings, such as age, sex, blood immune composition, hemoglobin levels, and others. We developed a model to assess the association of multiple factors with the human methylome and identify the genomic loci significantly impacted by each trait. We demonstrated that DNA methylation variation is accurately modeled by several factors. We confirmed the well-known impact of age and sex and unveiled novel clinical factors associated with DNA methylation, such as blood neutrophils, hemoglobin, red blood cell distribution width, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and urea. Genomic regions significantly associated with these traits were enriched in relevant transcription factors, drugs, and diseases. Among our findings, we showed that neutrophil-impacted loci were involved in neutrophil functionality and maturation. Similarly, hemoglobin-influenced sites were associated with several diseases, including aplastic anemia, and the genomic loci affected by urea were related to congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the human methylome plasticity and provide insights into novel factors shaping DNA methylation patterns, highlighting their potential clinical implications as biomarkers and the importance of considering these physiological traits in future medical epigenomic investigations.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have developed a quantitative model to assess how the human methylome is associated with several factors and to identify the genomic loci significantly impacted by each trait. We reported novel health-related factors driving DNA methylation patterns and new site-specific regulations that further elucidate methylome dynamics. Our study contributes to a better understanding of the plasticity of the human methylome and unveils novel physiological traits with a potential role in future medical epigenomic investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Protti
- Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Liudmilla Rubbi
- Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Tarik Gören
- Emergency Department, Pamukkale University Medical Faculty, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Ramazan Sabirli
- Emergency Department, Bakircay University Faculty of Medicine Cigli Training and Research Hospital, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Serkan Civlan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Pamukkale University Faculty of Medicine, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Özgür Kurt
- Department of Microbiology, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - İbrahim Türkçüer
- Emergency Department, Pamukkale University Medical Faculty, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Aylin Köseler
- Department of Biophysics, Pamukkale University Faculty of Medicine, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Matteo Pellegrini
- Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States
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Presicce P, Cappelletti M, Morselli M, Ma F, Senthamaraikannan P, Protti G, Nadel BB, Aryan L, Eghbali M, Salwinski L, Pithia N, De Franco E, Miller LA, Pellegrini M, Jobe AH, Chougnet CA, Kallapur SG. Amnion responses to intrauterine inflammation and effects of inhibition of TNF signaling in preterm Rhesus macaque. iScience 2023; 26:108118. [PMID: 37953944 PMCID: PMC10637919 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Intrauterine infection/inflammation (IUI) is a frequent complication of pregnancy leading to preterm labor and fetal inflammation. How inflammation is modulated at the maternal-fetal interface is unresolved. We compared transcriptomics of amnion (a fetal tissue in contact with amniotic fluid) in a preterm Rhesus macaque model of IUI induced by lipopolysaccharide with human cohorts of chorioamnionitis. Bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) amnion transcriptomic profiles were remarkably similar in both Rhesus and human subjects and revealed that induction of key labor-mediating genes such as IL1 and IL6 was dependent on nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling and reversed by the anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antibody Adalimumab. Inhibition of collagen biosynthesis by IUI was partially restored by Adalimumab. Interestingly, single-cell transcriptomics, flow cytometry, and immunohistology demonstrated that a subset of amnion mesenchymal cells (AMCs) increase CD14 and other myeloid cell markers during IUI both in the human and Rhesus macaque. Our data suggest that CD14+ AMCs represent activated AMCs at the maternal-fetal interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Presicce
- Divisions of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Monica Cappelletti
- Divisions of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Marco Morselli
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Institute for Quantitative and Computational Biosciences – Collaboratory at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Feiyang Ma
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Institute for Quantitative and Computational Biosciences – Collaboratory at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Paranthaman Senthamaraikannan
- Division of Neonatology/Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, The University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, The University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Giulia Protti
- Institute for Quantitative and Computational Biosciences – Collaboratory at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Brian B. Nadel
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, and Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Laila Aryan
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mansoureh Eghbali
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Lukasz Salwinski
- UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Neema Pithia
- Divisions of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Emily De Franco
- Department of Obstetrics/Gynecology, Maternal-Fetal Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Lisa A. Miller
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, CA, USA
| | - Matteo Pellegrini
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Institute for Quantitative and Computational Biosciences – Collaboratory at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alan H. Jobe
- Division of Neonatology/Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, The University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, The University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Claire A. Chougnet
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Suhas G. Kallapur
- Divisions of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Lattanzi G, Strati F, Díaz-Basabe A, Perillo F, Amoroso C, Protti G, Rita Giuffrè M, Iachini L, Baeri A, Baldari L, Cassinotti E, Ghidini M, Galassi B, Lopez G, Noviello D, Porretti L, Trombetta E, Messuti E, Mazzarella L, Iezzi G, Nicassio F, Granucci F, Vecchi M, Caprioli F, Facciotti F. iNKT cell-neutrophil crosstalk promotes colorectal cancer pathogenesis. Mucosal Immunol 2023; 16:326-340. [PMID: 37004750 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2023.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
iNKT cells account for a relevant fraction of effector T-cells in the intestine and are considered an attractive platform for cancer immunotherapy. Although iNKT cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes, their functional role in colorectal cancer (CRC) is still controversial, limiting their therapeutic use. Thus, we examined the immune cell composition and iNKT cell phenotype of CRC lesions in patients (n = 118) and different murine models. High-dimensional single-cell flow-cytometry, metagenomics, and RNA sequencing experiments revealed that iNKT cells are enriched in tumor lesions. The tumor-associated pathobiont Fusobacterium nucleatum induces IL-17 and Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) expression in iNKT cells without affecting their cytotoxic capability but promoting iNKT-mediated recruitment of neutrophils with polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells-like phenotype and functions. The lack of iNKT cells reduced the tumor burden and recruitment of immune suppressive neutrophils. iNKT cells in-vivo activation with α-galactosylceramide restored their anti-tumor function, suggesting that iNKT cells can be modulated to overcome CRC-associated immune evasion. Tumor co-infiltration by iNKT cells and neutrophils correlates with negative clinical outcomes, highlighting the importance of iNKT cells in the pathophysiology of CRC. Our results reveal a functional plasticity of iNKT cells in CRC, suggesting a pivotal role of iNKT cells in shaping the tumor microenvironment, with relevant implications for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Lattanzi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy; Department of Oncology and Hemato-oncology, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Strati
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Angélica Díaz-Basabe
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy; Department of Oncology and Hemato-oncology, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Perillo
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy; Department of Oncology and Hemato-oncology, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Amoroso
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Protti
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Rita Giuffrè
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Iachini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Baeri
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Ludovica Baldari
- General and Emergency Surgery Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Elisa Cassinotti
- General and Emergency Surgery Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Ghidini
- Medical Oncology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Barbara Galassi
- Medical Oncology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianluca Lopez
- Pathology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Noviello
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Porretti
- Clinical Chemistry and Microbiology Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Trombetta
- Clinical Chemistry and Microbiology Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Eleonora Messuti
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Mazzarella
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Giandomenica Iezzi
- Department of Visceral Surgery, EOC Translational Research Laboratory, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Francesco Nicassio
- Center for Genomic Science of IIT@SEMM, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Granucci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Maurizio Vecchi
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Flavio Caprioli
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Facciotti
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.
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Montico G, Mingozzi F, Casciano F, Protti G, Gornati L, Marzola E, Banfi G, Guerrini R, Secchiero P, Volinia S, Granucci F, Reali E. CCR4 + CD8 + T cells clonally expand to differentiated effectors in murine psoriasis and in human psoriatic arthritis. Eur J Immunol 2023; 53:e2149702. [PMID: 36722608 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202149702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease with an autoimmune component and associated with joint inflammation in up to 30% of cases. To investigate autoreactive T cells, we developed an imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like inflammation model in K5-mOVA.tg C57BL/6 mice expressing ovalbumin (OVA) on the keratinocyte membrane, adoptively transferred with OT-I OVA-specific CD8+ T cells. We evaluated the expansion of OT-I CD8+ T cells and their localization in skin, blood, and spleen. scRNA-seq and TCR sequencing data from patients with psoriatic arthritis were also analyzed. In the imiquimod-treated K5-mOVA.tg mouse model, OT-I T cells were markedly expanded in the skin and blood at early time points. OT-I T cells in the skin showed mainly CXCR3+ effector memory phenotype, whereas in peripheral blood there was an expansion of CCR4+ CXCR3+ OT-I cells. At a later time point, expanded OVA-specific T-cell population was found in the spleen. In patients with psoriatic arthritis, scRNA-seq and TCR sequencing data showed clonal expansion of CCR4+ TCM cells in the circulation and further expansion in the synovial fluid. Importantly, there was a clonotype overlap between CCR4+ TCM in the peripheral blood and CD8+ T-cell effectors in the synovial fluid. This mechanism could play a role in the generation and spreading of autoreactive T cells to the synovioentheseal tissues in psoriasis patients at risk of developing psoriatic arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francesca Mingozzi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Casciano
- Department of Translational Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,Interdepartmental Research Center for the Study of Multiple Sclerosis and Inflammatory and Degenerative Diseases of the Nervous System, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Giulia Protti
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi" (INGM), Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Gornati
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Erika Marzola
- Department of Chemical Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | | | - Remo Guerrini
- Department of Chemical Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paola Secchiero
- Department of Translational Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Stefano Volinia
- Department of Translational Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,Biological and Chemical Research Centre (CNBCh UW), University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Francesca Granucci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Eva Reali
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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5
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Marongiu L, Protti G, Facchini FA, Valache M, Mingozzi F, Ranzani V, Putignano AR, Salviati L, Bevilacqua V, Curti S, Crosti M, Sarnicola ML, D'Angiò M, Bettini LR, Biondi A, Nespoli L, Tamini N, Clementi N, Mancini N, Abrignani S, Spreafico R, Granucci F. Maturation signatures of conventional dendritic cell subtypes in COVID-19 suggest direct viral sensing. Eur J Immunol 2021; 52:109-122. [PMID: 34333764 PMCID: PMC8420462 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202149298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) undergo aberrant maturation in COVID‐19, which negatively affects T‐cell activation. The presence of effector T cells in patients with mild disease and dysfunctional T cells in severely ill patients suggests that adequate T‐cell responses limit disease severity. Understanding how cDCs cope with SARS‐CoV‐2 can help elucidate how protective immune responses are generated. Here, we report that cDC2 subtypes exhibit similar infection‐induced gene signatures, with the upregulation of IFN‐stimulated genes and IL‐6 signaling pathways. Furthermore, comparison of cDCs between patients with severe and mild disease showed severely ill patients to exhibit profound downregulation of genes encoding molecules involved in antigen presentation, such as MHCII, TAP, and costimulatory proteins, whereas we observed the opposite for proinflammatory molecules, such as complement and coagulation factors. Thus, as disease severity increases, cDC2s exhibit enhanced inflammatory properties and lose antigen presentation capacity. Moreover, DC3s showed upregulation of anti‐apoptotic genes and accumulated during infection. Direct exposure of cDC2s to the virus in vitro recapitulated the activation profile observed in vivo. Our findings suggest that SARS‐CoV‐2 interacts directly with cDC2s and implements an efficient immune escape mechanism that correlates with disease severity by downregulating crucial molecules required for T‐cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Marongiu
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Protti
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio A Facchini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Mihai Valache
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Mingozzi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Valeria Ranzani
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Rita Putignano
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Salviati
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Valeria Bevilacqua
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Serena Curti
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | - Mariacristina Crosti
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
| | | | - Mariella D'Angiò
- Pediatric Department and Centro Tettamanti-European Reference Network PaedCan, EuroBloodNet, MetabERN-University of Milano-Bicocca-Fondazione MBBM-Ospedale, San Gerardo, Italy
| | - Laura Rachele Bettini
- Pediatric Department and Centro Tettamanti-European Reference Network PaedCan, EuroBloodNet, MetabERN-University of Milano-Bicocca-Fondazione MBBM-Ospedale, San Gerardo, Italy
| | - Andrea Biondi
- Pediatric Department and Centro Tettamanti-European Reference Network PaedCan, EuroBloodNet, MetabERN-University of Milano-Bicocca-Fondazione MBBM-Ospedale, San Gerardo, Italy
| | - Luca Nespoli
- ASST san Gerardo Hospital, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicolò Tamini
- ASST san Gerardo Hospital, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Clementi
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology and Virology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.,IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicasio Mancini
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology and Virology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.,IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Sergio Abrignani
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy.,Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberto Spreafico
- Institute for Quantitative and Computational Biosciences, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Francesca Granucci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,National Institute of Molecular Genetics "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", Milan, Italy
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