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Kebriaei R, Rybak MJ, Lapitan CK, Somerville GA, Bayer AS, Mishra NN. 1703. Efficacy of Selected Metabolic Inhibitors for the Prevention and Resensitization of High-Level Daptomycin Resistance in Streptococcus mitis-oralis In Vitro and in an Ex Vivo Simulated Endocarditis Model. Open Forum Infect Dis 2022. [PMCID: PMC9752928 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofac492.1333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rapid development of stable, high-level daptomycin-resistance (DAP-R) is frequent among Streptococcus mitis-oralis strains during exposure to DAP in vitro and in vivo. Metabolomic analyses of in vitro-derived daptomycin-resistant (DAP-R) S. mitis-oralis strains (351D10) revealed substantial glycolytic pathway differences vs. its DAP-susceptible (DAP-S) parental strain, 351. To define translatability of such metabolic changes, we assessed combinations of DAP + strategic metabolic inhibitors likely to impact such pathways, including: oxamic acid [OXA], trimetazidine [TMZ) and 6-mercaptopurine [6-MP]. We assessed these combinations vs. our DAP-S/DAP-R isogenic strain pair both in vitro and ex vivo for: bactericidal and synergistic activities; prevention of high-level DAP-R in DAP-S cells; and/or resensitization of DAP-R cells Methods MICs. E test and microbroth dilution In vitro antimicrobial combination assays. Time-kill curves (24 hr) and serial passaging in DAP (10 d). Ex vivo IE model: SEVs (simulated endocardial vegetation’s) were quantitatively cultured at serial time-points post-exposures to DAP +/- inhibitors (0, 4, 8, 24, 32, 48 hr). Results In vitro, combinations of DAP + OXA or DAP + TMZ, as well as OXA or TMZ monotherapy, exerted bactericidal effect against both strains. Moreover, DAP + 6-MP yielded both a bactericidal, as well as synergistic activity against DAP-S 351 (but not against DAP-R 351 D10). None of the combinations prevented the development of DAP-R or resensitized the DAP-R strain to a DAP-S phenotype in vitro. In the ex vivo SEV model, using PK/PD simulations of humanized drug doses, DAP + OXA was the most effective regimen for both the DAP-S 351 and DAP-R 351 D10 strains; both OXA alone and DAP + OXA prevented DAP-R evolution, although not resensitizing the DAP-R strain to a DAP-S phenotype. Conclusion Combinations of DAP plus specific metabolic inhibitors represents a promising approach to enhance killing of S. mitis-oralis strains, as well as to potentially forestall DAP-R emergence. Also, they do provide a solid platform upon which to explore other potential metabolic modifiers for their ability to enhance the efficacy of DAP, based on definable metabolic perturbations in DAP-R S. mitis-oralis. Disclosures All Authors: No reported disclosures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Kebriaei
- Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Michael J Rybak
- Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Detroit, Michigan
| | | | - Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - Arnold S Bayer
- Lundquist Institute-Harbor UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California
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Somerville GA, Parrett AA, Reed JM, Gardner SG, Morton M, Powers R. Human Serum Alters the Metabolism and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus. J Proteome Res 2022; 21:1467-1474. [PMID: 35537087 PMCID: PMC10962117 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.2c00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a common source of hospital-acquired bacterial infections, where the emergence of antibiotic resistance is a serious human health concern. Most investigations into S. aureus virulence and antibiotic resistance have relied on in vitro cultivation conditions and optimized media formulations. However, S. aureus can survive and adapt to a hostile host environment or antibiotic treatments by rapidly adjusting its metabolic activity. To assess this metabolic response, S. aureus strains susceptible and nonsusceptible to daptomycin were cultivated in medium supplemented with 55% serum to more closely approximate in vivo conditions. Growth analyses, MIC testing, and NMR-based metabolomics determined that serum decreased daptomycin susceptibility and altered metabolism in S. aureus. Both S. aureus strains exhibited altered amino acid biosynthesis and catabolism, enhanced fermentation, and a modified salt tolerance response. The observation that growth conditions defined an adaptive metabolic response to antibiotics by S. aureus may be a critical consideration for designing an effective drug discovery study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A. Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Allison A. Parrett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE 68588-0304
| | - Joseph M. Reed
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Stewart G. Gardner
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Martha Morton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE 68588-0304
- Nebraska Center for Integrated Biomolecular Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE 68588-0304
| | - Robert Powers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE 68588-0304
- Nebraska Center for Integrated Biomolecular Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE 68588-0304
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Pätzold L, Brausch AC, Bielefeld EL, Zimmer L, Somerville GA, Bischoff M, Gaupp R. Impact of the Histidine-Containing Phosphocarrier Protein HPr on Carbon Metabolism and Virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9030466. [PMID: 33668335 PMCID: PMC7996215 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9030466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Carbon catabolite repression (CCR) is a common mechanism pathogenic bacteria use to link central metabolism with virulence factor synthesis. In gram-positive bacteria, catabolite control protein A (CcpA) and the histidine-containing phosphocarrier protein HPr (encoded by ptsH) are the predominant mediators of CCR. In addition to modulating CcpA activity, HPr is essential for glucose import via the phosphotransferase system. While the regulatory functions of CcpA in Staphylococcus aureus are largely known, little is known about the function of HPr in CCR and infectivity. To address this knowledge gap, ptsH mutants were created in S. aureus that either lack the open reading frame or harbor a ptsH variant carrying a thymidine to guanosine mutation at position 136, and the effects of these mutations on growth and metabolism were assessed. Inactivation of ptsH altered bacterial physiology and decreased the ability of S. aureus to form a biofilm and cause infections in mice. These data demonstrate that HPr affects central metabolism and virulence in S. aureus independent of its influence on CcpA regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Pätzold
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg, Germany; (L.P.); (A.-C.B.); (E.-L.B.); (L.Z.); (R.G.)
| | - Anne-Christine Brausch
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg, Germany; (L.P.); (A.-C.B.); (E.-L.B.); (L.Z.); (R.G.)
| | - Evelyn-Laura Bielefeld
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg, Germany; (L.P.); (A.-C.B.); (E.-L.B.); (L.Z.); (R.G.)
| | - Lisa Zimmer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg, Germany; (L.P.); (A.-C.B.); (E.-L.B.); (L.Z.); (R.G.)
| | - Greg A. Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA;
| | - Markus Bischoff
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg, Germany; (L.P.); (A.-C.B.); (E.-L.B.); (L.Z.); (R.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-6841-162-39-63
| | - Rosmarie Gaupp
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg, Germany; (L.P.); (A.-C.B.); (E.-L.B.); (L.Z.); (R.G.)
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Reed JM, Gardner SG, Mishra NN, Bayer AS, Somerville GA. Metabolic interventions for the prevention and treatment of daptomycin non-susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2020; 74:2274-2283. [PMID: 31074482 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A major developing problem in the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infections is the emergence of resistance during treatment with daptomycin. Previous metabolomic analyses of isogenic S. aureus strains prior to and after evolution into a daptomycin non-susceptible (DapNS) state provided important metabolic information about this transition (e.g. perturbations of the tricarboxylic acid cycle). OBJECTIVES To assess the significance of these metabolic changes, in vitro susceptibility to daptomycin was determined in daptomycin-susceptible (DapS) and DapNSS. aureus strains cultivated with metabolic inhibitors targeting these changes. METHODS Only inhibitors that are approved for use in humans were chosen (i.e. fosfomycin, valproate, trimetazidine and 6-mercaptopurine) to assess the importance of metabolic pathways for daptomycin non-susceptibility. The ability of these inhibitors to forestall the emergence of DapNS strains was also assessed. RESULTS The combination of daptomycin and fosfomycin synergistically killed both DapS and DapNS strains in vitro and enhanced the in vivo outcome against a DapNS strain in experimental endocarditis. Interestingly, fosfomycin acts on the peptidoglycan biosynthetic enzyme UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferase (MurA); however, it also had a significant effect on the enzymatic activity of enolase, an essential enzyme in S. aureus. While fosfomycin acted synergistically with daptomycin, it failed to prevent the in vitro evolution of daptomycin non-susceptibility. In contrast, trimetazidine, an anti-angina drug that stimulates glucose oxidation, abolished the ability of DapSS. aureus strains to transition to a DapNS state. CONCLUSIONS These data reveal that metabolic adaptations associated with DapNS strains can be targeted to prevent the emergence of and/or reverse pre-existing resistance to daptomycin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Reed
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905, USA
| | - Stewart G Gardner
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905, USA
| | - Nagendra N Mishra
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90502, USA.,Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA
| | - Arnold S Bayer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90502, USA.,Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA
| | - Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905, USA
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Parrett A, Reed JM, Gardner SG, Mishra NN, Bayer AS, Powers R, Somerville GA. Metabolic changes associated with adaptive resistance to daptomycin in Streptococcus mitis-oralis. BMC Microbiol 2020; 20:162. [PMID: 32539684 PMCID: PMC7296729 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-01849-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Viridans group streptococci of the Streptococcus mitis-oralis subgroup are important endovascular pathogens. They can rapidly develop high-level and durable non-susceptibility to daptomycin both in vitro and in vivo upon exposure to daptomycin. Two consistent genetic adaptations associated with this phenotype (i.e., mutations in cdsA and pgsA) lead to the depletion of the phospholipids, phosphatidylglycerol and cardiolipin, from the bacterial membrane. Such alterations in phospholipid biosynthesis will modify carbon flow and change the bacterial metabolic status. To determine the metabolic differences between daptomycin-susceptible and non-susceptible bacteria, the physiology and metabolomes of S. mitis-oralis strains 351 (daptomycin-susceptible) and 351-D10 (daptomycin non-susceptible) were analyzed. S. mitis-oralis strain 351-D10 was made daptomycin non-susceptible through serial passage in the presence of daptomycin. Results Daptomycin non-susceptible S. mitis-oralis had significant alterations in glucose catabolism and a re-balancing of the redox status through amino acid biosynthesis relative to daptomycin susceptible S. mitis-oralis. These changes were accompanied by a reduced capacity to generate biomass, creating a fitness cost in exchange for daptomycin non-susceptibility. Conclusions S. mitis-oralis metabolism is altered in daptomycin non-susceptible bacteria relative to the daptomycin susceptible parent strain. As demonstrated in Staphylococcus aureus, inhibiting the metabolic changes that facilitate the transition from a daptomycin susceptible state to a non-susceptible one, inhibits daptomycin non-susceptibility. By preventing these metabolic adaptations in S. mitis-oralis, it should be possible to deter the formation of daptomycin non-susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Parrett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0304, USA
| | - Joseph M Reed
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0905, USA.,Present address: Chemical Testing Program, Wyoming Department of Health, Cheyenne, Wyoming, 82002, USA
| | - Stewart G Gardner
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0905, USA.,Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas, 66801, USA
| | - Nagendra N Mishra
- Division of Infectious Diseases, The Lundquist Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, 90502, USA.,David Geffen School of Medicine University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Arnold S Bayer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, The Lundquist Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, 90502, USA.,David Geffen School of Medicine University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Robert Powers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0304, USA. .,Nebraska Center for Integrated Biomolecular Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0304, USA.
| | - Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0905, USA.
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Reed JM, Olson S, Brees DF, Griffin CE, Grove RA, Davis PJ, Kachman SD, Adamec J, Somerville GA. Coordinated regulation of transcription by CcpA and the Staphylococcus aureus two-component system HptRS. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207161. [PMID: 30540769 PMCID: PMC6291074 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The success of Staphylococcus aureus as a pathogen is due in part to its ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions using signal transduction pathways, such as metabolite- responsive regulators and two-component systems. S. aureus has a two-component system encoded by the gene pair sav0224 (hptS) and sav0223 (hptR) that regulate the hexose phosphate transport (uhpT) system in response to extracellular glucose-6-phosphate. Glycolytic intermediates such as glucose-6-phosphate are important carbon sources that also modulate the activity of the global metabolite-responsive transcriptional regulator CcpA. Because uhpT has a putative CcpA binding site in its promoter and it is regulated by HptR, it was hypothesized the regulons of CcpA and HptR might intersect. To determine if the regulatory domains of CcpA and HptRS overlap, ccpA was deleted in strains SA564 and SA564-ΔhptRS and growth, metabolic, proteomic, and transcriptional differences were assessed. As expected, CcpA represses hptS and hptR in a glucose dependent manner; however, upon CcpA derepression, the HptRS system functions as a transcriptional activator of metabolic genes within the CcpA regulon. Importantly, inactivation of ccpA and hptRS altered sensitivity to fosfomycin and ampicillin in the absence of exogenous glucose-6-phosphate, indicating that both CcpA and HptRS modulate antibiotic susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Reed
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Sean Olson
- Department of Statistics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Danielle F. Brees
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Caitlin E. Griffin
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Ryan A. Grove
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Davis
- Unaffiliated, Honey Creek, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Stephen D. Kachman
- Department of Statistics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Jiri Adamec
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Greg A. Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Gardner SG, Marshall DD, Daum RS, Powers R, Somerville GA. Metabolic Mitigation of Staphylococcus aureus Vancomycin Intermediate-Level Susceptibility. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2018; 62:e01608-17. [PMID: 29109158 PMCID: PMC5740343 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01608-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen whose infections are increasingly difficult to treat due to increased antibiotic resistance, including resistance to vancomycin. Vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains develop resistance to vancomycin through adaptive changes that are incompletely understood. Central to this adaptation are metabolic changes that permit growth in the presence of vancomycin. To define the metabolic changes associated with adaptive resistance to vancomycin in S. aureus, the metabolomes of a vancomycin-sensitive and VISA strain pair isolated from the same patient shortly after vancomycin therapy began and following vancomycin treatment failure were analyzed. The metabolic adaptations included increases in acetogenesis, carbon flow through the pentose phosphate pathway, wall teichoic acid and peptidoglycan precursor biosynthesis, purine biosynthesis, and decreased tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity. The significance of these metabolic pathways for vancomycin-intermediate susceptibility was determined by assessing the synergistic potential of human-use-approved inhibitors of these pathways in combination with vancomycin against VISA strains. Importantly, inhibitors of amino sugar and purine biosynthesis acted synergistically with vancomycin to kill a diverse set of VISA strains, suggesting that combinatorial therapy could augment the efficacy of vancomycin even in patients infected with VISA strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart G Gardner
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Darrell D Marshall
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Robert S Daum
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Institute for Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Center for Vaccine Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Robert Powers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- Nebraska Center for Integrated Biomolecular Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
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Bischoff M, Wonnenberg B, Nippe N, Nyffenegger-Jann NJ, Voss M, Beisswenger C, Sunderkötter C, Molle V, Dinh QT, Lammert F, Bals R, Herrmann M, Somerville GA, Tschernig T, Gaupp R. CcpA Affects Infectivity of Staphylococcus aureus in a Hyperglycemic Environment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:172. [PMID: 28536677 PMCID: PMC5422431 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many bacteria regulate the expression of virulence factors via carbon catabolite responsive elements. In Gram-positive bacteria, the predominant mediator of carbon catabolite repression is the catabolite control protein A (CcpA). Hyperglycemia is a widespread disorder that predisposes individuals to an array of symptoms and an increased risk of infections. In hyperglycemic individuals, the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus causes serious, life-threatening infections. The importance of CcpA in regulating carbon catabolite repression in S. aureus suggests it may be important for infections in hyperglycemic individuals. To test this suggestion, hyperglycemic non-obese diabetic (NOD; blood glucose level ≥20 mM) mice were challenged with the mouse pathogenic S. aureus strain Newman and the isogenic ccpA deletion mutant (MST14), and the effects on infectivity were determined. Diabetic NOD mice challenged with the ccpA deletion mutant enhanced the symptoms of infection in an acute murine pneumonia model relative to the parental strain. Interestingly, when diabetic NOD mice were used in footpad or catheter infection models, infectivity of the ccpA mutant decreased relative to the parental strain. These differences greatly diminished when normoglycemic NOD mice (blood glucose level ≤ 10 mM) were used. These data suggest that CcpA is important for infectivity of S. aureus in hyperglycemic individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Bischoff
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland UniversityHomburg, Germany
| | - Bodo Wonnenberg
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland UniversityHomburg, Germany
| | - Nadine Nippe
- Institute of Immunology, University of MunsterMunster, Germany
| | - Naja J Nyffenegger-Jann
- Division of Infection Biology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital BaselBasel, Switzerland
| | - Meike Voss
- Department of Internal Medicine V - Pulmonology, Allergology and Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University HospitalHomburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Beisswenger
- Department of Internal Medicine V - Pulmonology, Allergology and Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University HospitalHomburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Quoc Thai Dinh
- Department of Experimental Pneumology and Allergology, Saarland University HospitalHomburg, Germany
| | - Frank Lammert
- Department of Medicine II, Saarland University HospitalHomburg, Germany
| | - Robert Bals
- Department of Internal Medicine V - Pulmonology, Allergology and Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University HospitalHomburg, Germany
| | - Mathias Herrmann
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland UniversityHomburg, Germany
| | - Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-LincolnLincoln, NE, USA
| | - Thomas Tschernig
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland UniversityHomburg, Germany
| | - Rosmarie Gaupp
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland UniversityHomburg, Germany
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Hartmann T, Baronian G, Nippe N, Voss M, Schulthess B, Wolz C, Eisenbeis J, Schmidt-Hohagen K, Gaupp R, Sunderkötter C, Beisswenger C, Bals R, Somerville GA, Herrmann M, Molle V, Bischoff M. The catabolite control protein E (CcpE) affects virulence determinant production and pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:29701-11. [PMID: 25193664 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.584979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon metabolism and virulence determinant production are often linked in pathogenic bacteria, and several regulatory elements have been reported to mediate this linkage in Staphylococcus aureus. Previously, we described a novel protein, catabolite control protein E (CcpE) that functions as a regulator of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Here we demonstrate that CcpE also regulates virulence determinant biosynthesis and pathogenesis. Specifically, deletion of ccpE in S. aureus strain Newman revealed that CcpE affects transcription of virulence factors such as capA, the first gene in the capsule biosynthetic operon; hla, encoding α-toxin; and psmα, encoding the phenol-soluble modulin cluster α. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated that CcpE binds to the hla promoter. Mice challenged with S. aureus strain Newman or its isogenic ΔccpE derivative revealed increased disease severity in the ΔccpE mutant using two animal models; an acute lung infection model and a skin infection model. Complementation of the mutant with the ccpE wild-type allele restored all phenotypes, demonstrating that CcpE is negative regulator of virulence in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Hartmann
- From the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Grégory Baronian
- the Laboratoire de Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, Université Montpellier 2, CNRS, UMR 5235, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Nadine Nippe
- the Institute of Immunology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Meike Voss
- the Department of Internal Medicine V-Pulmonology, Allergology and Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University Medical Centre, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Bettina Schulthess
- the Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christiane Wolz
- the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Janina Eisenbeis
- From the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Kerstin Schmidt-Hohagen
- the Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Rosmarie Gaupp
- From the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Cord Sunderkötter
- the Department of Dermatology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany, and
| | - Christoph Beisswenger
- the Department of Internal Medicine V-Pulmonology, Allergology and Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University Medical Centre, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Robert Bals
- the Department of Internal Medicine V-Pulmonology, Allergology and Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University Medical Centre, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Greg A Somerville
- the School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0903
| | - Mathias Herrmann
- From the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Virginie Molle
- the Laboratoire de Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, Université Montpellier 2, CNRS, UMR 5235, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Markus Bischoff
- From the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany,
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Stark JL, Copeland JC, Eletsky A, Somerville GA, Szyperski T, Powers R. Identification of low-molecular-weight compounds inhibiting growth of corynebacteria: potential lead compounds for antibiotics. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:282-5. [PMID: 24403054 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The bacterial genus Corynebacteria contains several pathogenic species that cause diseases such as diphtheria in humans and "cheesy gland" in goats and sheep. Thus, identifying new therapeutic targets to treat Corynebacteria infections is both medically and economically important. CG2496, a functionally uncharacterized protein from Corynebacterium glutamicum, was evaluated using an NMR ligand-affinity screen. A total of 11 compounds from a library of 460 biologically active compounds were shown to selectively bind CG2496 in a highly conserved region of the protein. The best binder was identified to be methiothepin (KD =54 ± 19 µM), an FDA-approved serotonin receptor antagonist. Methiothepin was also shown to inhibit the growth of C. glutamicum, but not bacteria that lack CG2496 homologs. Our results suggest that CG2496 is a novel therapeutic target and methiothepin is a potential lead compound or structural scaffold for developing new antibiotics specifically targeting Corynebacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime L Stark
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304 (USA)
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11
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Abstract
The "omics" era began with transcriptomics and this progressed into proteomics. While useful, these approaches provide only circumstantial information about carbon flow, metabolic status, redox poise, etc. To more directly address these metabolic concerns, researchers have turned to the emerging field of metabolomics. In our laboratories, we frequently use NMR metabolomics to acquire a snapshot of bacterial metabolomes during stressful or transition events. Irrespective of the "omics" method of choice, the experimental outcome depends on the proper cultivation and preparation of bacterial samples. In addition, the integration of these large datasets requires that these cultivation conditions be clearly defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Halouska S, Zhang B, Gaupp R, Lei S, Snell E, Fenton RJ, Barletta RG, Somerville GA, Powers R. Revisiting Protocols for the NMR Analysis of Bacterial Metabolomes. J Integr OMICS 2013; 3:120-137. [PMID: 26078915 PMCID: PMC4465129 DOI: 10.5584/jiomics.v3i2.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, metabolomics has emerged as an important technique for systems biology. Measuring all the metabolites in a biological system provides an invaluable source of information to explore various cellular processes, and to investigate the impact of environmental factors and genetic modifications. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is an important method routinely employed in metabolomics. NMR provides comprehensive structural and quantitative information useful for metabolomics fingerprinting, chemometric analysis, metabolite identification and metabolic pathway construction. A successful metabolomics study relies on proper experimental protocols for the collection, handling, processing and analysis of metabolomics data. Critically, these protocols should eliminate or avoid biologically-irrelevant changes to the metabolome. We provide a comprehensive description of our NMR-based metabolomics procedures optimized for the analysis of bacterial metabolomes. The technical details described within this manuscript should provide a useful guide to reliably apply our NMR-based metabolomics methodology to systems biology studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Halouska
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
| | - Rosmarie Gaupp
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905
| | - Shulei Lei
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
| | - Emily Snell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
| | - Robert J. Fenton
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905
| | - Raul G. Barletta
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905
| | - Greg A. Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0905
| | - Robert Powers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
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Hartmann T, Zhang B, Baronian G, Schulthess B, Homerova D, Grubmüller S, Kutzner E, Gaupp R, Bertram R, Powers R, Eisenreich W, Kormanec J, Herrmann M, Molle V, Somerville GA, Bischoff M. Catabolite control protein E (CcpE) is a LysR-type transcriptional regulator of tricarboxylic acid cycle activity in Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:36116-28. [PMID: 24194525 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.516302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) is a central metabolic pathway that provides energy, reducing potential, and biosynthetic intermediates. In Staphylococcus aureus, TCA cycle activity is controlled by several regulators (e.g. CcpA, CodY, and RpiRc) in response to the availability of sugars, amino acids, and environmental stress. Developing a bioinformatic search for additional carbon catabolite-responsive regulators in S. aureus, we identified a LysR-type regulator, catabolite control protein E (CcpE), with homology to the Bacillus subtilis CcpC regulator. Inactivation of ccpE in S. aureus strain Newman revealed that CcpE is a positive transcriptional effector of the first two enzymes of the TCA cycle, aconitase (citB) and to a lesser extent citrate synthase (citZ). Consistent with the transcriptional data, aconitase activity dramatically decreased in the ccpE mutant relative to the wild-type strain. The effect of ccpE inactivation on citB transcription and the lesser effect on citZ transcription were also reflected in electrophoretic mobility shift assays where CcpE bound to the citB promoter but not the citZ promoter. Metabolomic studies showed that inactivation of ccpE resulted in increased intracellular concentrations of acetate, citrate, lactate, and alanine, consistent with a redirection of carbon away from the TCA cycle. Taken together, our data suggest that CcpE is a major direct positive regulator of the TCA cycle gene citB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Hartmann
- From the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland Hospital, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
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Shah N, Gaupp R, Moriyama H, Eskridge KM, Moriyama EN, Somerville GA. Reductive evolution and the loss of PDC/PAS domains from the genus Staphylococcus. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:524. [PMID: 23902280 PMCID: PMC3734008 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain represents a ubiquitous structural fold that is involved in bacterial sensing and adaptation systems, including several virulence related functions. Although PAS domains and the subclass of PhoQ-DcuS-CitA (PDC) domains have a common structure, there is limited amino acid sequence similarity. To gain greater insight into the evolution of PDC/PAS domains present in the bacterial kingdom and staphylococci in specific, the PDC/PAS domains from the genomic sequences of 48 bacteria, representing 5 phyla, were identified using the sensitive search method based on HMM-to-HMM comparisons (HHblits). Results A total of 1,007 PAS domains and 686 PDC domains distributed over 1,174 proteins were identified. For 28 Gram-positive bacteria, the distribution, organization, and molecular evolution of PDC/PAS domains were analyzed in greater detail, with a special emphasis on the genus Staphylococcus. Compared to other bacteria the staphylococci have relatively fewer proteins (6–9) containing PDC/PAS domains. As a general rule, the staphylococcal genomes examined in this study contain a core group of seven PDC/PAS domain-containing proteins consisting of WalK, SrrB, PhoR, ArlS, HssS, NreB, and GdpP. The exceptions to this rule are: 1) S. saprophyticus lacks the core NreB protein; 2) S. carnosus has two additional PAS domain containing proteins; 3) S. epidermidis, S. aureus, and S. pseudintermedius have an additional protein with two PDC domains that is predicted to code for a sensor histidine kinase; 4) S. lugdunensis has an additional PDC containing protein predicted to be a sensor histidine kinase. Conclusions This comprehensive analysis demonstrates that variation in PDC/PAS domains among bacteria has limited correlations to the genome size or pathogenicity; however, our analysis established that bacteria having a motile phase in their life cycle have significantly more PDC/PAS-containing proteins. In addition, our analysis revealed a tremendous amount of variation in the number of PDC/PAS-containing proteins within genera. This variation extended to the Staphylococcus genus, which had between 6 and 9 PDC/PAS proteins and some of these appear to be previously undescribed signaling proteins. This latter point is important because most staphylococcal proteins that contain PDC/PAS domains regulate virulence factor synthesis or antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neethu Shah
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0115, USA
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15
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Somerville GA, Proctor RA. Cultivation conditions and the diffusion of oxygen into culture media: the rationale for the flask-to-medium ratio in microbiology. BMC Microbiol 2013; 13:9. [PMID: 23324109 PMCID: PMC3551634 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-13-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cultivation requires consideration of three things: The bacterial strain, cultivation medium, and cultivation conditions. Most microbiologists dutifully report their choice of strains and cultivation media in manuscripts; however, these same microbiologists often overlook reporting cultivation conditions. Without this information, it is difficult to determine if cultures were grown aerobically, microaerobically, or anaerobically. To cultivate bacteria aerobically, it is necessary to understand that oxygen does not readily diffuse into culture media; it needs help to get in. Microbiologists can do this by altering the flask-to-medium ratio, rpm of agitation, and/or the concentration of atmospheric oxygen, or by using baffled flasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0905, USA.
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Sadykov MR, Hartmann T, Mattes TA, Hiatt M, Jann NJ, Zhu Y, Ledala N, Landmann R, Herrmann M, Rohde H, Bischoff M, Somerville GA. CcpA coordinates central metabolism and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis. Microbiology (Reading) 2012. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.x00003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Abstract
Staphylococci are a versatile genus of bacteria that are capable of causing acute and chronic infections in diverse host species. The success of staphylococci as pathogens is due in part to their ability to mitigate endogenous and exogenous oxidative and nitrosative stress. Endogenous oxidative stress is a consequence of life in an aerobic environment; whereas, exogenous oxidative and nitrosative stress are often due to the bacteria's interaction with host immune systems. To overcome the deleterious effects of oxidative and nitrosative stress, staphylococci have evolved protection, detoxification, and repair mechanisms that are controlled by a network of regulators. In this review, we summarize the cellular targets of oxidative stress, the mechanisms by which staphylococci sense oxidative stress and damage, oxidative stress protection and repair mechanisms, and regulation of the oxidative stress response. When possible, special attention is given to how the oxidative stress defense mechanisms help staphylococci control oxidative stress in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosmarie Gaupp
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE, USA
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18
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Sadykov MR, Hartmann T, Mattes TA, Hiatt M, Jann NJ, Zhu Y, Ledala N, Landmann R, Herrmann M, Rohde H, Bischoff M, Somerville GA. CcpA coordinates central metabolism and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis. Microbiology (Reading) 2011; 157:3458-3468. [PMID: 21964732 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.051243-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is an opportunistic bacterium whose infections often involve the formation of a biofilm on implanted biomaterials. In S. epidermidis, the exopolysaccharide facilitating bacterial adherence in a biofilm is polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA), whose synthesis requires the enzymes encoded within the intercellular adhesin operon (icaADBC). In vitro, the formation of S. epidermidis biofilms is enhanced by conditions that repress tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity, such as growth in a medium containing glucose. In many Gram-positive bacteria, repression of TCA cycle genes in response to glucose is accomplished by catabolite control protein A (CcpA). CcpA is a member of the GalR-LacI repressor family that mediates carbon catabolite repression, leading us to hypothesize that catabolite control of S. epidermidis biofilm formation is indirectly regulated by CcpA-dependent repression of the TCA cycle. To test this hypothesis, ccpA deletion mutants were constructed in strain 1457 and 1457-acnA and the effects on TCA cycle activity, biofilm formation and virulence were assessed. As anticipated, deletion of ccpA derepressed TCA cycle activity and inhibited biofilm formation; however, ccpA deletion had only a modest effect on icaADBC transcription. Surprisingly, deletion of ccpA in strain 1457-acnA, a strain whose TCA cycle is inactive and where icaADBC transcription is derepressed, strongly inhibited icaADBC transcription. These observations demonstrate that CcpA is a positive effector of biofilm formation and icaADBC transcription and a repressor of TCA cycle activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marat R Sadykov
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Torsten Hartmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland Hospital, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Theodoric A Mattes
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Megan Hiatt
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Naja J Jann
- Division of Infection Biology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Yefei Zhu
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Nagender Ledala
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Regine Landmann
- Division of Infection Biology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mathias Herrmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland Hospital, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Holger Rohde
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Bischoff
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland Hospital, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Greg A Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Zhang B, Halouska S, Schiaffo CE, Sadykov MR, Somerville GA, Powers R. NMR analysis of a stress response metabolic signaling network. J Proteome Res 2011; 10:3743-54. [PMID: 21692534 DOI: 10.1021/pr200360w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We previously hypothesized that Staphylococcus epidermidis senses a diverse set of environmental and nutritional factors associated with biofilm formation through a modulation in the activity of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Herein, we report our further investigation of the impact of additional environmental stress factors on TCA cycle activity and provide a detailed description of our NMR methodology. S. epidermidis wild-type strain 1457 was treated with stressors that are associated with biofilm formation, a sublethal dose of tetracycline, 5% NaCl, 2% glucose, and autoinducer-2 (AI-2). As controls and to integrate our current data with our previous study, 4% ethanol stress and iron-limitation were also used. Consistent with our prior observations, the effect of many environmental stress factors on the S. epidermidis metabolome was essentially identical to the effect of TCA cycle inactivation in the aconitase mutant strain 1457-acnA::tetM. A detailed quantitative analysis of metabolite concentration changes using 2D (1)H-(13)C HSQC and (1)H-(1)H TOCSY spectra identified a network of 37 metabolites uniformly affected by the stressors and TCA cycle inactivation. We postulate that the TCA cycle acts as the central pathway in a metabolic signaling network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, USA
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20
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Sadykov MR, Zhang B, Halouska S, Nelson JL, Kreimer LW, Zhu Y, Powers R, Somerville GA. Using NMR metabolomics to investigate tricarboxylic acid cycle-dependent signal transduction in Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:36616-24. [PMID: 20861019 PMCID: PMC2978590 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.152843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 09/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a skin-resident bacterium and a major cause of biomaterial-associated infections. The transition from residing on the skin to residing on an implanted biomaterial is accompanied by regulatory changes that facilitate bacterial survival in the new environment. These regulatory changes are dependent upon the ability of bacteria to "sense" environmental changes. In S. epidermidis, disparate environmental signals can affect synthesis of the biofilm matrix polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA). Previously, we demonstrated that PIA biosynthesis is regulated by tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity. The observations that very different environmental signals result in a common phenotype (i.e. increased PIA synthesis) and that TCA cycle activity regulates PIA biosynthesis led us to hypothesize that S. epidermidis is "sensing" disparate environmental signals through the modulation of TCA cycle activity. In this study, we used NMR metabolomics to demonstrate that divergent environmental signals are transduced into common metabolomic changes that are "sensed" by metabolite-responsive regulators, such as CcpA, to affect PIA biosynthesis. These data clarify one mechanism by which very different environmental signals cause common phenotypic changes. In addition, due to the frequency of the TCA cycle in diverse genera of bacteria and the intrinsic properties of TCA cycle enzymes, it is likely the TCA cycle acts as a signal transduction pathway in many bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marat R. Sadykov
- From the School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0905
| | - Bo Zhang
- the Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, and
| | - Steven Halouska
- the Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, and
| | - Jennifer L. Nelson
- From the School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0905
| | - Lauren W. Kreimer
- the Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0664
| | - Yefei Zhu
- From the School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0905
| | - Robert Powers
- the Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, and
| | - Greg A. Somerville
- From the School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0905
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21
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Zhu Y, Xiong YQ, Sadykov MR, Fey PD, Lei MG, Lee CY, Bayer AS, Somerville GA. Tricarboxylic acid cycle-dependent attenuation of Staphylococcus aureus in vivo virulence by selective inhibition of amino acid transport. Infect Immun 2009; 77:4256-64. [PMID: 19667045 PMCID: PMC2747957 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00195-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococci are the leading causes of endovascular infections worldwide. Commonly, these infections involve the formation of biofilms on the surface of biomaterials. Biofilms are a complex aggregation of bacteria commonly encapsulated by an adhesive exopolysaccharide matrix. In staphylococci, this exopolysaccharide matrix is composed of polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA). PIA is synthesized when the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is repressed. The inverse correlation between PIA synthesis and TCA cycle activity led us to hypothesize that increasing TCA cycle activity would decrease PIA synthesis and biofilm formation and reduce virulence in a rabbit catheter-induced model of biofilm infection. TCA cycle activity can be induced by preventing staphylococci from exogenously acquiring a TCA cycle-derived amino acid necessary for growth. To determine if TCA cycle induction would decrease PIA synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus, the glutamine permease gene (glnP) was inactivated and TCA cycle activity, PIA accumulation, biofilm forming ability, and virulence in an experimental catheter-induced endovascular biofilm (endocarditis) model were determined. Inactivation of this major glutamine transporter increased TCA cycle activity, transiently decreased PIA synthesis, and significantly reduced in vivo virulence in the endocarditis model in terms of achievable bacterial densities in biofilm-associated cardiac vegetations, kidneys, and spleen. These data confirm the close linkage of TCA cycle activity and virulence factor production and establish that this metabolic linkage can be manipulated to alter infectious outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yefei Zhu
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, 155 VBS, Fair St. and East Campus Loop, Lincoln, NE 68583-0905, USA
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22
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Chatterjee I, Schmitt S, Batzilla CF, Engelmann S, Keller A, Ring MW, Kautenburger R, Ziebuhr W, Hecker M, Preissner KT, Bischoff M, Proctor RA, Beck HP, Lenhof HP, Somerville GA, Herrmann M. Staphylococcus aureus ClpC ATPase is a late growth phase effector of metabolism and persistence. Proteomics 2009; 9:1152-76. [PMID: 19253280 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200800586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus Clp ATPases (molecular chaperones) alter normal physiological functions including an aconitase-mediated effect on post-stationary growth, acetate catabolism, and entry into death phase (Chatterjee et al., J. Bacteriol. 2005, 187, 4488-4496). In the present study, the global function of ClpC in physiology, metabolism, and late-stationary phase survival was examined using DNA microarrays and 2-D PAGE followed by MALDI-TOF MS. The results suggest that ClpC is involved in regulating the expression of genes and/or proteins of gluconeogenesis, the pentose-phosphate pathway, pyruvate metabolism, the electron transport chain, nucleotide metabolism, oxidative stress, metal ion homeostasis, stringent response, and programmed cell death. Thus, one major function of ClpC is balancing late growth phase carbon metabolism. Furthermore, these changes in carbon metabolism result in alterations of the intracellular concentration of free NADH, the amount of cell-associated iron, and fatty acid metabolism. This study provides strong evidence for ClpC as a critical factor in staphylococcal energy metabolism, stress regulation, and late-stationary phase survival; therefore, these data provide important insight into the adaptation of S. aureus toward a persister state in chronic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indranil Chatterjee
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Saarland Hospital, Homburg/Saar, Germany.
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23
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Sadykov MR, Olson ME, Halouska S, Zhu Y, Fey PD, Powers R, Somerville GA. Tricarboxylic acid cycle-dependent regulation of Staphylococcus epidermidis polysaccharide intercellular adhesin synthesis. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:7621-32. [PMID: 18820013 PMCID: PMC2583607 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00806-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2008] [Accepted: 09/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a major nosocomial pathogen primarily infecting immunocompromised individuals or those with implanted biomaterials (e.g., catheters). Biomaterial-associated infections often involve the formation of a biofilm on the surface of the medical device. In S. epidermidis, polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) is an important mediator of biofilm formation and pathogenesis. Synthesis of PIA is regulated by at least three DNA binding proteins (IcaR, SarA, and sigma(B)) and several environmental and nutritional conditions. Previously, we observed the environmental conditions that increased PIA synthesis decreased tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity. In this study, S. epidermidis TCA cycle mutants were constructed, and the function of central metabolism in PIA biosynthesis was examined. TCA cycle inactivation altered the metabolic status of S. epidermidis, resulting in a massive derepression of PIA biosynthetic genes and a redirection of carbon from growth into PIA biosynthesis. These data demonstrate that the bacterial metabolic status is a critical regulatory determinant of PIA synthesis. In addition, these data lead us to propose that the TCA cycle acts as a signal transduction pathway to translate external environmental cues into intracellular metabolic signals that modulate the activity of transcriptional regulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marat R Sadykov
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 155 VBS, Fair St. and East Campus Loop, Lincoln, NE 68583-0905, USA
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24
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Zhu Y, Weiss EC, Otto M, Fey PD, Smeltzer MS, Somerville GA. Staphylococcus aureus biofilm metabolism and the influence of arginine on polysaccharide intercellular adhesin synthesis, biofilm formation, and pathogenesis. Infect Immun 2007; 75:4219-26. [PMID: 17576756 PMCID: PMC1951195 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00509-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are the leading causes of nosocomial infections in the United States and often are associated with biofilms attached to indwelling medical devices. Despite the importance of biofilms, there is very little consensus about the metabolic requirements of S. aureus during biofilm growth. To assess the metabolic requirements of S. aureus growing in a biofilm, we grew USA200 and USA300 clonal types in biofilm flow cells and measured the extraction and accumulation of metabolites. In spite of the genetic differences, both clonal types extracted glucose and accumulated lactate, acetate, formate, and acetoin, suggesting that glucose was catabolized to pyruvate that was then catabolized via the lactate dehydrogenase, pyruvate formate-lyase, and butanediol pathways. Additionally, both clonal types selectively extracted the same six amino acids (serine, proline, arginine, glutamine, glycine, and threonine) from the culture medium. These data and recent speculation about the importance of arginine in biofilm growth and the function of arginine deiminase in USA300 clones led us to genetically inactivate the sole copy of the arginine deiminase operon by deleting the arginine/ornithine antiporter gene (arcD) in the USA200 clonal type and to assess the effect on biofilm development and pathogenesis. Although inactivation of arcD did completely inhibit arginine transport and did reduce polysaccharide intercellular adhesin accumulation, arcD mutants formed biofilms and achieved cell densities in catheter infection studies that were equivalent to those for isogenic wild-type strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yefei Zhu
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, 155 VBS, East Campus Loop, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
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Nelson JL, Rice KC, Slater SR, Fox PM, Archer GL, Bayles KW, Fey PD, Kreiswirth BN, Somerville GA. Vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus strains have impaired acetate catabolism: implications for polysaccharide intercellular adhesin synthesis and autolysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 51:616-22. [PMID: 17130298 PMCID: PMC1797750 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01057-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The most common mechanism by which Staphylococcus aureus gains resistance to vancomycin is by adapting its physiology and metabolism to permit growth in the presence of vancomycin. Several studies have examined the adaptive changes occurring during the transition to vancomycin-intermediate resistance, leading to a model of vancomycin resistance in which decreased cell wall turnover and autolysis result in increased cell wall thickness and resistance to vancomycin. In the present study, we identified metabolic changes common to vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains by assessing the metabolic and growth characteristics of two VISA strains (vancomycin MICs of 8 microg/ml) and two isogenic derivative strains with vancomycin MICs of 32 microg/ml. Interestingly, we observed the parental strains had impaired catabolism of nonpreferred carbon sources (i.e., acetate), and this impairment became more pronounced as vancomycin resistance increased. To determine if acetate catabolism impairment is common to VISA strains, we assessed the ability of VISA and vancomycin-sensitive S. aureus (VSSA) clinical isolates to catabolize acetate. As expected, a significantly greater percentage of VISA strains (71%) had impaired acetate catabolism relative to VSSA (8%). This is an important observation because staphylococcal acetate catabolism is implicated in growth yield and antibiotic tolerance and in regulating cell death and polysaccharide intercellular adhesin synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Nelson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, 155 VBS, East Campus Loop, Lincoln, NE 68583-0905, USA
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Chatterjee I, Somerville GA, Heilmann C, Sahl HG, Maurer HH, Herrmann M. Very low ethanol concentrations affect the viability and growth recovery in post-stationary-phase Staphylococcus aureus populations. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006; 72:2627-36. [PMID: 16597967 PMCID: PMC1449072 DOI: 10.1128/aem.72.4.2627-2636.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals, culture media used for in vitro diagnostics and research, human body fluids, and environments can retain very low ethanol concentrations (VLEC) (< or =0.1%, vol/vol). In contrast to the well-established effects of elevated ethanol concentrations on bacteria, little is known about the consequences of exposure to VLEC. We supplemented growth media for Staphylococcus aureus strain DSM20231 with VLEC (VLEC(+) conditions) and determined ultramorphology, growth, and viability compared to those with unsupplemented media (VLEC(-) conditions) for prolonged culture times (up to 8 days). VLEC(+)-grown late-stationary-phase S. aureus displayed extensive alterations of cell integrity as shown by scanning electron microscopy. Surprisingly, while ethanol in the medium was completely metabolized during exponential phase, a profound delay of S. aureus post-stationary-phase recovery (>48 h) was observed. Concomitantly, under VLEC(+) conditions, the concentration of acetate in the culture medium remained elevated while that of ammonia was reduced, contributing to an acidic culture medium and suggesting decreased amino acid catabolism. Interestingly, amino acid depletion was not uniformly affected: under VLEC(+) conditions, glutamic acid, ornithine, and proline remained in the culture medium while the uptake of other amino acids was not affected. Supplementation with arginine, but not with other amino acids, was able to restore post-stationary-phase growth and viability. Taken together, these data demonstrate that VLEC have profound effects on the recovery of S. aureus even after ethanol depletion and delay the transition from primary to secondary metabolite catabolism. These data also suggest that the concentration of ethanol needed for bacteriostatic control of S. aureus is lower than that previously reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indranil Chatterjee
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Saarland, Kirrberger Strasse, Building 43, Homburg/Saar 66421, Germany
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Chatterjee I, Becker P, Grundmeier M, Bischoff M, Somerville GA, Peters G, Sinha B, Harraghy N, Proctor RA, Herrmann M. Staphylococcus aureus ClpC is required for stress resistance, aconitase activity, growth recovery, and death. J Bacteriol 2005; 187:4488-96. [PMID: 15968059 PMCID: PMC1151783 DOI: 10.1128/jb.187.13.4488-4496.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of Staphylococcus aureus to adapt to various conditions of stress is the result of a complex regulatory response. Previously, it has been demonstrated that Clp homologues are important for a variety of stress conditions, and our laboratory has shown that a clpC homologue was highly expressed in the S. aureus strain DSM20231 during biofilm formation relative to expression in planktonic cells. Persistence and long-term survival are a hallmark of biofilm-associated staphylococcal infections, as cure frequently fails even in the presence of bactericidal antimicrobials. To determine the role of clpC in this context, we performed metabolic, gene expression, and long-term growth and survival analyses of DSM20231 as well as an isogenic clpC allelic-replacement mutant, a sigB mutant, and a clpC sigB double mutant. As expected, the clpC mutant showed increased sensitivity to oxidative and heat stresses. Unanticipated, however, was the reduced expression of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle gene citB (encoding aconitase), resulting in the loss of aconitase activity and preventing the catabolization of acetate during the stationary phase. clpC inactivation abolished post-stationary-phase recovery but also resulted in significantly enhanced stationary-phase survival compared to that of the wild-type strain. These data demonstrate the critical role of the ClpC ATPase in regulating the TCA cycle and implicate ClpC as being important for recovery from the stationary phase and also for entering the death phase. Understanding the stationary- and post-stationary-phase recovery in S. aureus may have important clinical implications, as little is known about the mechanisms of long-term persistence of chronic S. aureus infections associated with formation of biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indranil Chatterjee
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Institutes of Infectious Disease Medicine, University of Saarland, Homburg/Saar, Germany
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Vuong C, Kidder JB, Jacobson ER, Otto M, Proctor RA, Somerville GA. Staphylococcus epidermidis polysaccharide intercellular adhesin production significantly increases during tricarboxylic acid cycle stress. J Bacteriol 2005; 187:2967-73. [PMID: 15838022 PMCID: PMC1082835 DOI: 10.1128/jb.187.9.2967-2973.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) is important for the development of a mature biofilm. PIA production is increased during growth in a nutrient-replete or iron-limited medium and under conditions of low oxygen availability. Additionally, stress-inducing stimuli such as heat, ethanol, and high concentrations of salt increase the production of PIA. These same environmental conditions are known to repress tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity, leading us to hypothesize that altering TCA cycle activity would affect PIA production. Culturing Staphylococcus epidermidis with a low concentration of the TCA cycle inhibitor fluorocitrate dramatically increased PIA production without impairing glucose catabolism, the growth rate, or the growth yields. These data lead us to speculate that one mechanism by which staphylococci perceive external environmental change is through alterations in TCA cycle activity leading to changes in the intracellular levels of biosynthetic intermediates, ATP, or the redox status of the cell. These changes in the metabolic status of the bacteria result in the attenuation or augmentation of PIA production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuong Vuong
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Labortories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA
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Banks DJ, Porcella SF, Barbian KD, Beres SB, Philips LE, Voyich JM, DeLeo FR, Martin JM, Somerville GA, Musser JM. Progress toward characterization of the group A Streptococcus metagenome: complete genome sequence of a macrolide-resistant serotype M6 strain. J Infect Dis 2004; 190:727-38. [PMID: 15272401 DOI: 10.1086/422697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2004] [Accepted: 03/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe the genome sequence of a macrolide-resistant strain (MGAS10394) of serotype M6 group A Streptococcus (GAS). The genome is 1,900,156 bp in length, and 8 prophage-like elements or remnants compose 12.4% of the chromosome. A 8.3-kb prophage remnant encodes the SpeA4 variant of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A. The genome of strain MGAS10394 contains a chimeric genetic element composed of prophage genes and a transposon encoding the mefA gene conferring macrolide resistance. This chimeric element also has a gene encoding a novel surface-exposed protein (designated "R6 protein"), with an LPKTG cell-anchor motif located at the carboxyterminus. Surface expression of this protein was confirmed by flow cytometry. Humans with GAS pharyngitis caused by serotype M6 strains had antibody against the R6 protein present in convalescent, but not acute, serum samples. Our studies add to the theme that GAS prophage-encoded extracellular proteins contribute to host-pathogen interactions in a strain-specific fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Banks
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, USA
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Chenoweth MR, Somerville GA, Krause DC, O'Reilly KL, Gherardini FC. Growth characteristics of Bartonella henselae in a novel liquid medium: primary isolation, growth-phase-dependent phage induction, and metabolic studies. Appl Environ Microbiol 2004; 70:656-63. [PMID: 14766538 PMCID: PMC348914 DOI: 10.1128/aem.70.2.656-663.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bartonella henselae is a zoonotic pathogen that usually causes a self-limiting infection in immunocompetent individuals but often causes potentially life-threatening infections, such as bacillary angiomatosis, in immunocompromised patients. Both diagnosis of infection and research into the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis have been hindered by the absence of a suitable liquid growth medium. It has been difficult to isolate B. henselae directly from the blood of infected humans or animals or to grow the bacteria in liquid culture media under laboratory conditions. Therefore, we have developed a liquid growth medium that supports reproducible in vitro growth (3-h doubling time and a growth yield of approximately 5 x 10(8) CFU/ml) and permits the isolation of B. henselae from the blood of infected cats. During the development of this medium, we observed that B. henselae did not derive carbon and energy from the catabolism of glucose, which is consistent with genome nucleotide sequence data suggesting an incomplete glycolytic pathway. Of interest, B. henselae depleted amino acids from the culture medium and accumulated ammonia in the medium, an indicator of amino acid catabolism. Analysis of the culture medium throughout the growth cycle revealed that oxygen was consumed and carbon dioxide was generated, suggesting that amino acids were catabolized in a tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle-dependent mechanism. Additionally, phage particles were detected in the culture supernatants of stationary-phase B. henselae, but not in mid-logarithmic-phase culture supernatants. Enzymatic assays of whole-cell lysates revealed that B. henselae has a complete TCA cycle. Taken together, these data suggest B. henselae may catabolize amino acids but not glucose to derive carbon and energy from its host. Furthermore, the newly developed culture medium should improve isolation of B. henselae and basic research into the pathogenesis of the bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Chenoweth
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA
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Somerville GA, Cockayne A, Dürr M, Peschel A, Otto M, Musser JM. Synthesis and deformylation of Staphylococcus aureus delta-toxin are linked to tricarboxylic acid cycle activity. J Bacteriol 2003; 185:6686-94. [PMID: 14594843 PMCID: PMC262117 DOI: 10.1128/jb.185.22.6686-6694.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In bacteria, translation initiates with formyl-methionine; however, the N-terminal formyl group is usually removed by peptide deformylase, an enzymatic activity requiring iron. Staphylococcus aureus delta-toxin is a 26-amino-acid polypeptide secreted predominantly with a formylated N-terminal methionine, which led us to investigate regulation of delta-toxin deformylation. We observed that during exponential and early postexponential growth, delta-toxin accumulated in the culture medium in formylated and deformylated forms. In contrast, only formylated delta-toxin accumulated after the early postexponential phase. The transition from producing both species of delta-toxin to producing only formyl-methionine-containing delta-toxin coincided with increased tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity. The TCA cycle contains several iron-requiring enzymes, which led us to hypothesize that TCA cycle induction depletes the iron in the culture medium, thereby inhibiting peptide deformylase activity. As expected, S. aureus depletes the iron in the culture medium between the postexponential and stationary phases of growth. Inhibition of delta-toxin deformylation was relieved by TCA cycle inactivation or by addition of supplemental iron to the culture medium. Of interest, peptides containing formyl-methionine are potent chemoattractants for neutrophils, suggesting that delta-toxin deformylation may have functional consequences. We found neutrophil chemotactic activity only with formylated delta-toxin. The S. aureus TCA cycle is derepressed upon depletion of rapidly catabolizable carbon sources; this coincides with the transition to producing only formylated delta-toxin and results in an increased inflammatory response. The proinflammatory response should increase host cell damage and result in the release of nutrients. Taken together, these results establish that there is an important linkage between bacterial metabolism and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Somerville
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA.
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Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes is a human-specific pathogen that relies on its host for metabolic substrates. Rgg-like proteins constitute a family of transcriptional regulators present in several gram-positive bacteria. In S. pyogenes, Rgg influences the expression of several virulence-associated proteins localized to the cell wall and extracellular environment. Secreted enzymes may degrade host macromolecules, thereby liberating metabolic substrates. To determine if Rgg regulation of exoprotein expression is associated with altered metabolism, the catabolic activities of S. pyogenes strain NZ131 (serotype M49) and an isogenic rgg mutant strain were analyzed during growth with complex and defined media. As expected, the wild-type strain preferentially used glucose and produced lactic acid during the exponential phase of growth. In contrast, the rgg mutant fermented arginine in the exponential phase of growth, even in the presence of glucose. Arginine degradation was associated with a neutral culture pH and excretion of NH(3) and ornithine. Arginine, serine, and asparagine were depleted from mutant cultures during growth. The addition of arginine and serine to culture media increased the growth yield and NH(3) production of mutant but not wild-type cultures. Addition of asparagine had no effect on the growth yield of either strain. Altered metabolism of arginine and serine in the mutant was associated with increased transcript levels of genes encoding arginine deiminase and a putative serine dehydratase. Thus, Rgg coordinates virulence factor synthesis and catabolic activity and may be important in the pathogen's adaptation to changes in the availability of metabolic substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Chaussee
- Division of Basic Biomedical Science, University of South Dakota College of Medicine, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA.
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Kobayashi SD, Voyich JM, Somerville GA, Musser JM, Malech HL, DeLeo FR. Response to the Letter submitted by R. Brooks Robey. J Leukoc Biol 2003. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0503225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Vuong C, Gerke C, Somerville GA, Fischer ER, Otto M. Quorum-sensing control of biofilm factors in Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Infect Dis 2003; 188:706-18. [PMID: 12934187 DOI: 10.1086/377239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2003] [Accepted: 03/21/2003] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is the most frequent cause of nosocomial sepsis and catheter-related infections, in which biofilm formation is considered to be the main virulence mechanism. Quorum-sensing systems have been recognized as important regulators of virulence and biofilm formation in many bacteria. There is a single quorum-sensing system in S. epidermidis encoded by the agr operon. To investigate quorum-sensing control of biofilm formation, we constructed an agr deletion mutant, assayed for the different stages of biofilm formation, and determined agr-dependent regulation of biofilm factors. The agr mutant showed increased biofilm formation, primary attachment, and expression of the autolysin AtlE, but lacked delta-toxin production. However, the level of polysaccharide intercellular adhesin expression was equivalent to the isogenic wild-type strain. In contrast to AtlE, which is known to influence primary attachment, delta-toxin appeared to exert its effect on attachment to polystyrene during later stages of biofilm formation. Importantly, addition of cross-inhibiting pheromones mimicked an agr mutation and significantly enhanced biofilm formation, which suggests that care should be used when treating S. epidermidis infections with cross-inhibiting peptides. Our data demonstrate the importance of quorum sensing in the establishment of a biofilm in this critical human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuong Vuong
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA
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35
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Somerville GA, Saïd-Salim B, Wickman JM, Raffel SJ, Kreiswirth BN, Musser JM. Correlation of acetate catabolism and growth yield in Staphylococcus aureus: implications for host-pathogen interactions. Infect Immun 2003; 71:4724-32. [PMID: 12874354 PMCID: PMC166023 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.8.4724-4732.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, we reported that the prototypical Staphylococcus aureus strain RN6390 (a derivative of NCTC 8325) had significantly reduced aconitase activity relative to a diverse group of S. aureus isolates, leading to the hypothesis that strain RN6390 has impaired tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle-mediated acetate catabolism. Analysis of the culture supernatant from RN6390 confirmed that acetate was incompletely catabolized, suggesting that the ability to catabolize acetate can be lost by S. aureus. To test this hypothesis, we examined the carbon catabolism of the S. aureus strains whose genome sequences are publicly available. All strains catabolized glucose and excreted acetate into the culture medium. However, strains NCTC 8325 and N315 failed to catabolize acetate during the postexponential growth phase, resulting in significantly lower growth yields relative to strains that catabolized acetate. Strains NCTC 8325 and RN6390 contained an 11-bp deletion in rsbU, the gene encoding a positive regulator of the alternative sigma factor sigma(B) encoded by sigB. An isogenic derivative strain of RN6390 containing the wild-type rsbU gene had significantly increased acetate catabolism, demonstrating that sigma(B) is required for acetate catabolism. Taken together, the data suggest that naturally occurring mutations can alter the ability of S. aureus to catabolize acetate, a surprising discovery, as TCA cycle function has been demonstrated to be involved in the virulence, survival, and persistence of several pathogenic organisms. Additionally, these mutations decrease the fitness of S. aureus by reducing the number of progeny placed into subsequent generations, suggesting that in certain situations a decreased growth yield is advantageous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Somerville
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA.
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Kobayashi SD, Voyich JM, Somerville GA, Braughton KR, Malech HL, Musser JM, DeLeo FR. An apoptosis-differentiation program in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes facilitates resolution of inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 73:315-22. [PMID: 12554809 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1002481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) are an essential part of innate immunity and contribute significantly to inflammation. Although much is understood about the inflammatory response, the molecular basis for termination of inflammation in humans is largely undefined. We used human oligonucleotide microarrays to identify genes differentially regulated during the onset of apoptosis occurring after PMN phagocytosis. Genes encoding proteins that regulate cell metabolism and vesicle trafficking comprised 198 (98 genes induced, 100 genes repressed) of 867 differentially expressed genes. We discovered that complex cellular pathways involving glutathione and thioredoxin detoxification systems, heme catabolism, ubiquitin-proteasome degradation, purine nucleotide metabolism, and nuclear import were regulated at the level of gene expression during the initial stages of PMN apoptosis. Eleven genes encoding key regulators of glycolysis, the hexose monophosphate shunt, the glycerol-phosphate shuttle, and oxidative phosphorylation were induced. Increased levels of cellular reduced glutathione and gamma-glutamyltransferase and glycolytic activity confirmed that several of these metabolic pathways were up-regulated. In contrast, seven genes encoding critical enzymes involved in fatty acid beta-oxidation, which can generate toxic lipid peroxides, were down-regulated. Our results indicate that energy metabolism and oxidative stress-response pathways are gene-regulated during PMN apoptosis. We propose that changes in PMN gene expression leading to programmed cell death are part of an apoptosis-differentiation program, a final stage of transcriptionally regulated PMN maturation that is accelerated significantly by phagocytosis. These findings provide new insight into the molecular events that contribute to the resolution of inflammation in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott D Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
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Schwan TG, Battisti JM, Porcella SF, Raffel SJ, Schrumpf ME, Fischer ER, Carroll JA, Stewart PE, Rosa P, Somerville GA. Glycerol-3-phosphate acquisition in spirochetes: distribution and biological activity of glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (GlpQ) among Borrelia species. J Bacteriol 2003; 185:1346-56. [PMID: 12562805 PMCID: PMC142843 DOI: 10.1128/jb.185.4.1346-1356.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Relapsing-fever spirochetes achieve high cell densities (>10(8)/ml) in their host's blood, while Lyme disease spirochetes do not (<10(5)/ml). This striking contrast in pathogenicity of these two groups of bacteria suggests a fundamental difference in their ability to either exploit or survive in blood. Borrelia hermsii, a tick-borne relapsing-fever spirochete, contains orthologs to glpQ and glpT, genes that encode glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (GlpQ) and glycerol-3-phosphate transporter (GlpT), respectively. In other bacteria, GlpQ hydrolyzes deacylated phospholipids to glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) while GlpT transports G3P into the cytoplasm. Enzyme assays on 17 isolates of borreliae demonstrated GlpQ activity in relapsing-fever spirochetes but not in Lyme disease spirochetes. Southern blots demonstrated glpQ and glpT in all relapsing-fever spirochetes but not in the Lyme disease group. A Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, that was transformed with a shuttle vector containing glpTQ from B. hermsii produced active enzyme, which demonstrated the association of glpQ with the hydrolysis of phospholipids. Sequence analysis of B. hermsii identified glpF, glpK, and glpA, which encode the glycerol facilitator, glycerol kinase, and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, respectively, all of which are present in B. burgdorferi. All spirochetes examined had gpsA, which encodes the enzyme that reduces dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to G3P. Consequently, three pathways for the acquisition of G3P exist among borreliae: (i) hydrolysis of deacylated phospholipids, (ii) reduction of DHAP, and (iii) uptake and phosphorylation of glycerol. The unique ability of relapsing-fever spirochetes to hydrolyze phospholipids may contribute to their higher cell densities in blood than those of Lyme disease spirochetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom G Schwan
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA.
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Somerville GA, Chaussee MS, Morgan CI, Fitzgerald JR, Dorward DW, Reitzer LJ, Musser JM. Staphylococcus aureus aconitase inactivation unexpectedly inhibits post-exponential-phase growth and enhances stationary-phase survival. Infect Immun 2002; 70:6373-82. [PMID: 12379717 PMCID: PMC130419 DOI: 10.1128/iai.70.11.6373-6382.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus preferentially catabolizes glucose, generating pyruvate, which is subsequently oxidized to acetate under aerobic growth conditions. Catabolite repression of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle results in the accumulation of acetate. TCA cycle derepression coincides with exit from the exponential growth phase, the onset of acetate catabolism, and the maximal expression of secreted virulence factors. These data suggest that carbon and energy for post-exponential-phase growth and virulence factor production are derived from the catabolism of acetate mediated by the TCA cycle. To test this hypothesis, the aconitase gene was genetically inactivated in a human isolate of S. aureus, and the effects on physiology, morphology, virulence factor production, virulence for mice, and stationary-phase survival were examined. TCA cycle inactivation prevented the post-exponential growth phase catabolism of acetate, resulting in premature entry into the stationary phase. This phenotype was accompanied by a significant reduction in the production of several virulence factors and alteration in host-pathogen interaction. Unexpectedly, aconitase inactivation enhanced stationary-phase survival relative to the wild-type strain. Aconitase is an iron-sulfur cluster-containing enzyme that is highly susceptible to oxidative inactivation. We speculate that reversible loss of the iron-sulfur cluster in wild-type organisms is a survival strategy used to circumvent oxidative stress induced during host-pathogen interactions. Taken together, these data demonstrate the importance of the TCA cycle in the life cycle of this medically important pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Somerville
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis. Rocky Mountain Microscopy Branch. Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA
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Somerville GA, Beres SB, Fitzgerald JR, DeLeo FR, Cole RL, Hoff JS, Musser JM. In vitro serial passage of Staphylococcus aureus: changes in physiology, virulence factor production, and agr nucleotide sequence. J Bacteriol 2002; 184:1430-7. [PMID: 11844774 PMCID: PMC134861 DOI: 10.1128/jb.184.5.1430-1437.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, we observed that Staphylococcus aureus strains newly isolated from patients had twofold-higher aconitase activity than a strain passaged extensively in vitro, leading us to hypothesize that aconitase specific activity decreases over time during in vitro passage. To test this hypothesis, a strain recovered from a patient with toxic shock syndrome was serially passaged for 6 weeks, and the aconitase activity was measured. Aconitase specific activity decreased 38% (P < 0.001) by the sixth week in culture. During serial passage, S. aureus existed as a heterogeneous population with two colony types that had pronounced (wild type) or negligible zones of beta-hemolytic activity. The cell density-sensing accessory gene regulatory (agr) system regulates beta-hemolytic activity. Surprisingly, the percentage of colonies with a wild-type beta-hemolytic phenotype correlated strongly with aconitase specific activity (rho = 0.96), suggesting a common cause of the decreased aconitase specific activity and the variation in percentage of beta-hemolytic colonies. The loss of the beta-hemolytic phenotype also coincided with the occurrence of mutations in the agrC coding region or the intergenic region between agrC and agrA in the derivative strains. Our results demonstrate that in vitro growth is sufficient to result in mutations within the agr operon. Additionally, our results demonstrate that S. aureus undergoes significant phenotypic and genotypic changes during serial passage and suggest that vigilance should be used when extrapolating data obtained from the study of high-passage strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Somerville
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/NIH, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA
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Smoot LM, Smoot JC, Graham MR, Somerville GA, Sturdevant DE, Migliaccio CA, Sylva GL, Musser JM. Global differential gene expression in response to growth temperature alteration in group A Streptococcus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:10416-21. [PMID: 11517341 PMCID: PMC56975 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.191267598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogens are exposed to different temperatures during an infection cycle and must regulate gene expression accordingly. However, the extent to which virulent bacteria alter gene expression in response to temperatures encountered in the host is unknown. Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human-specific pathogen that is responsible for illnesses ranging from superficial skin infections and pharyngitis to severe invasive infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. GAS survives and multiplies at different temperatures during human infection. DNA microarray analysis was used to investigate the influence of temperature on global gene expression in a serotype M1 strain grown to exponential phase at 29 degrees C and 37 degrees C. Approximately 9% of genes were differentially expressed by at least 1.5-fold at 29 degrees C relative to 37 degrees C, including genes encoding transporter proteins, proteins involved in iron homeostasis, transcriptional regulators, phage-associated proteins, and proteins with no known homologue. Relatively few known virulence genes were differentially expressed at this threshold. However, transcription of 28 genes encoding proteins with predicted secretion signal sequences was altered, indicating that growth temperature substantially influences the extracellular proteome. TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR assays confirmed the microarray data. We also discovered that transcription of genes encoding hemolysins, and proteins with inferred roles in iron regulation, transport, and homeostasis, was influenced by growth at 40 degrees C. Thus, GAS profoundly alters gene expression in response to temperature. The data delineate the spectrum of temperature-regulated gene expression in an important human pathogen and provide many unforeseen lines of pathogenesis investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Smoot
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
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