Various species of Basidiomycota fungi reveal different abilities to degrade pharmaceuticals and also different pathways of degradation

The presence of pharmaceuticals (PhACs) in the aquatic environment is an emerging problem worldwide. PhACs reach surface water via the effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). WWTPs, although able to remove organic pollutants, do not always remove PhACs. Currently, in the treatment of sewage with the activated sludge method, numerous microorganisms are used, mostly bacteria. Nevertheless, these microorganisms are not resistant to many drug contaminants, and some may also pose a risk to human health. White-rot fungi (WRF), which degrade a wide spectrum of environmental pollutants, may be used as an alternative to microorganisms. However, little data exists comparing the removal of various PhACs by different WRF. In this study, we aimed to determine the ability of three WRF Basidiomycota species, Armillaria mellea, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, and Pleurotus ostreatus, to remove PhACs from various therapeutic groups over the course of 1 h-4 days. Additionally, we identified the fungal metabolites of PhACs, proposed the degradation pathways, and assessed the toxicity of the post-culture media. All selected WRF removed PhACs, but the degree of removal depended on WRF species and PhACs type. Antidepressants and immunosuppressants were removed most efficiently by P. ostreatus, cardiovascular drugs and sulfamethoxazole by A. mellea, and erythromycin by P. chrysosporium. The vast differences observed highlight the need for more intensive testing of different WRF species to select the best species for removing pharmaceuticals of interest. The structure of metabolites generated during degradation strongly depended on WRF species, but the most frequent xenobiotic transformations were oxidation and dealkylation. The obtained results gave insight into the substrate specificity of selected WRF while also providing a broad extension of the knowledge of pharmaceutical degradation by A. mellea.

The study on contamination of bottom sediments from the Odra River estuary (SW Baltic Sea) by tributyltin using environmetric methods

We present the first comprehensive study on the occurrence of tributyltin (TBT) in the Odra River estuary (SW Baltic Sea) that encompasses both densely populated and urbanized agglomeration Szczecin city, and sparsely populated biosphere reserves "Natura 2000". Relationship between TBT and physicochemical parameters of bottom sediments such as granulometry total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), acid volatile sulfide (AVS), As, and metals: Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Ni, Mn, Mo, Pb, Sn, and Zn was investigated in 120 samples collected in 2017 and 2018. The highest TBT concentrations were over 3000 ng g^-1 (dry weight). They were observed in samples collected in the vicinity of the ship maintenance zones of the Szczecin city. Despite the EU ban on its use since 2003, TBT is still present in the environment. Environmetrics analyses such as correlation, cluster, and principal component analysis of obtained results revealed that the main source of sediments contamination by TBT, metalloids, and metals is likely related to the maritime industry: shipyards, ship maintenance as well as ports and marines. TBT is still present in the bottom sediments because of its emission to the environment with dust and paint chips formed during sandblasting cleaning of ship surfaces. The pollutant is further transported with water current to remote localization in the Szczecin Lagoon. Slow water exchange between the Szczecin Lagoon and the Baltic Sea favors accumulation of pollutants in the lagoon sediments. Therefore, it is necessary to implement environmentally friendly methods into ship maintenance and management of the materials from dredged waterways, harbors, and marinas.

The assessment of environmental risk related to the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in bottom sediments of the Odra River estuary (SW Baltic Sea)

The occurrence of 130 pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in sediments collected from 70 sampling sites in the Odra River estuary (SW Baltic Sea) was investigated. The highest concentration levels of the compounds were found in the vicinity of effluent discharge from two main Szczecin wastewater treatment plants: "Pomorzany" and "Zdroje", and nearby the seaport and shipyard. The highest environmental risks (RQ > 1) were observed for pseudoephedrine (RQ = 14.0), clindamycin (RQ = 7.3), nalidixic acid (RQ = 3.8), carbamazepine (RQ = 1.8), fexofenadine (RQ = 1.4), propranolol (RQ = 1.1), and thiabendazole (RQ = 1.1). RQ for each compound varied depending on the sampling sites. High environmental risk was observed in 30 sampling sites for clindamycin, 22 sampling sites for pseudoephedrine, 19 sampling sites for nalidixic acid, 4 sampling sites for carbamazepine, and 3 sampling sites for fexofenadine. The medium environmental risk (0.1 < RQ < 1) was observed for 16 compounds: amisulpride, amitriptyline, amlodipine, atropine, bisoprolol, chlorpromazine, lincomycin, metoprolol, mirtazapine, moclobemide, ofloxacin, oxazepam, tiapride, tolperisone, verapamil, and xylometazoline. Due to the scarcity of toxicological data related to benthic organisms, only an approximate assessment of the environmental risk of PhACs is possible. Nevertheless, the compounds with medium and high risk should be considered as pollutants of high environmental concern whose occurrence in the environment should remain under close scrutiny.

Polyscias filicifolia (Araliaceae) Hairy Roots with Antigenotoxic and Anti-Photogenotoxic Activity

Hairy root cultures are considered as a valuable source of bioactive phytoconstituents with expanding applicability for their production. In the present study, hairy root cultures of Polyscias filicifolia (Araliaceae), a traditional Southeast Asian medicinal plant, were established. The transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes ATCC 15834 allowed to obtain 15 root lines. The K-1 line, demonstrating the highest growth capabilities, was subjected to further investigations. To enhance the biosynthetic potential of hairy roots, methyl jasmonate elicitation approach was applied (MeJA; at different doses and exposure time), with subsequent transfer of elicited roots to control medium. This strategy resulted in chlorogenic acid production up to 1.59 mg/g dry weight. HPLC-PDA-ESI-MS analysis demonstrated variation in extracts composition and allowed to identify different caffeic and ferulic acid derivatives. Next, cytotoxic, antigenotoxic, and anti-photogenotoxic properties of hairy roots extracts were determined. None of the tested extracts were cytotoxic. In addition, they demonstrated significant antigenotoxic activity with the highest protective potential; up to 52% and 49% of inhibition of induction ratio (IR) induced by the 2-aminoanthracene was revealed for extracts derived from hairy roots elicited for 3 days with 50 µM MeJA and roots elicited for 7 days with 100 µM MeJA and then transferred for 30 days to control medium, respectively. These same extracts exhibited the highest anti-photogenotoxic potential, up to 36% of inhibition of chloropromazine-induced genotoxicity.

Industrialization as a source of heavy metals and antibiotics which can enhance the antibiotic resistance in wastewater, sewage sludge and river water

The spread of antibiotic resistance is closely related with selective pressure in the environment. Wastewater from industrialized regions is characterized by higher concentrations of these pollutants than sewage from less industrialized areas. The aim of this study was to compare the concentrations of contaminants such as antibiotics and heavy metals (HMs), and to evaluate their impact on the spread of genes encoding resistance to antimicrobial drugs in samples of wastewater, sewage sludge and river water in two regions with different levels of industrialization. The factors exerting selective pressure, which significantly contributed to the occurrence of the examined antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), were identified. The concentrations of selected gene copy numbers conferring resistance to four groups of antibiotics as well as class 1 and 2 integron-integrase genes were determined in the analyzed samples. The concentrations of six HMs and antibiotics corresponding to genes mediated resistance from 3 classes were determined. Based on network analysis, only some of the analyzed antibiotics correlated with ARGs, while HM levels were correlated with ARG concentrations, which can confirm the important role of HMs in promoting drug resistance. The samples from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) located an industrialized region were characterized by higher HM contamination and a higher number of significant correlations between the analyzed variables than the samples collected from a WWTP located in a less industrialized region. These results indicated that treated wastewater released into the natural environment can pose a continuous threat to human health by transferring ARGs, antibiotics and HMs to the environment. These findings shed light on the impact of industrialization on antibiotic resistance dissemination.

Hydrogels Based on Poly(Ether-Ester)s as Highly Controlled 5-Fluorouracil Delivery Systems-Synthesis and Characterization

A novel and promising hydrogel drug delivery system (DDS) capable of releasing 5‑fluorouracil (5-FU) in a prolonged and controlled manner was obtained using ε‑caprolactone‑poly(ethylene glycol) (CL-PEG) or rac‑lactide-poly(ethylene glycol) (rac‑LA-PEG) copolymers. Copolymers were synthesized via the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) process of cyclic monomers, ε‑caprolactone (CL) or rac-lactide (rac-LA), in the presence of zirconium(IV) octoate (Zr(Oct)₄) and poly(ethylene glycol) 200 (PEG 200) as catalyst and initiator, respectively. Obtained triblock copolymers were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) techniques; the structure and tacticity of the macromolecules were determined. The relationship between the copolymer structure and the reaction conditions was evaluated. The optimal conditions were specified as 140 °C and 24 h. In the next step, CL-PEG and rac-LA-PEG copolymers were chemically crosslinked using hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). Selected hydrogels were subjected to in vitro antitumor drug release studies, and the release data were analyzed using zero-order, first-order, and Korsmeyer-Peppas mathematical models. Controlled and prolonged (up to 432 h) 5-FU release profiles were observed for all examined hydrogels with first-order or zero-order kinetics. The drug release mechanism was generally denoted as non-Fickian transport.

Application of Pleurotus ostreatus to efficient removal of selected antidepressants and immunosuppressant

Disposed pharmaceuticals constitute a significant threat to the environment due to the high consumption of drugs and inefficient treatment of wastewater. In this paper, we first described the efficient removal of a series of antidepressants and immunosuppressant from a cultivation medium carried out by white-rot fungus, Pleurotus ostreatus. We determined the removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals and the activity of fungal ligninolytic enzymes over time, as well as the toxicity of pre- and post-cultivation medium to Spirostomum ambiguum. We showed that P. ostreatus can remove from the model medium most of the pharmaceuticals studied, including clomipramine, mianserin, paroxetine, sertraline, and mycophenolic acid. Pharmaceuticals containing phenolic or benzene moieties, likewise in the natural monolignols, were removed in a high efficiency within a short time. The activity of the fungal ligninolytic enzymes, laccase, and lignin peroxidase, in the cultivation medium, was three times higher in the presence of the pharmaceuticals, which justifies their contribution to the degradation. The post-cultivation medium showed lower toxicity than pre-cultivation medium and toxic units were 7- and 2-fold lower for the sublethal and lethal response, respectively. Over twenty metabolites we detected resulted mostly from oxygenation or demethylation of parent pharmaceuticals. The biological treatment we developed using P. ostreatus-based system should be convenient and effective in mycoremediation of environmental wastewater polluted with emerging contaminants including monolignol-like antidepressants and immunosuppressant.

Environmental Risk and Risk of Resistance Selection Due to Antimicrobials' Occurrence in Two Polish Wastewater Treatment Plants and Receiving Surface Water

In this study, a screening of 26 selected antimicrobials using liquid chromatography coupled to a tandem mass spectrometry method in two Polish wastewater treatment plants and their receiving surface waters was provided. The highest average concentrations of metronidazole (7400 ng/L), ciprofloxacin (4300 ng/L), vancomycin (3200 ng/L), and sulfamethoxazole (3000 ng/L) were observed in influent of WWTP2. Ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole were the most dominant antimicrobials in influent and effluent of both WWTPs. In the sludge samples the highest mean concentrations were found for ciprofloxacin (up to 28 μg/g) and norfloxacin (up to 5.3 μg/g). The removal efficiency of tested antimicrobials was found to be more than 50% for both WWTPs. However, the presence of antimicrobials influenced their concentrations in the receiving waters. The highest antimicrobial resistance risk was estimated in influent of WWTPs for azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, and trimethoprim and in the sludge samples for the following antimicrobials: azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, norfloxacin, trimethoprim, ofloxacin, and tetracycline. The high environmental risk for exposure to azithromycin, clarithromycin, and sulfamethoxazole to both cyanobacteria and eukaryotic species in effluents and/or receiving water was noted. Following the obtained results, we suggest extending the watch list of the Water Framework Directive for Union-wide monitoring with sulfamethoxazole.

Acute exposure of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae to environmental concentrations of selected antidepressants: Bioaccumulation, physiological and histological changes

Antidepressants have been detected in surface waters worldwide at ng-μg/L concentration. These compounds can exert adverse effects on fish even at low levels. But, all previous analyses have concentrated on adult fish. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of environmental concentrations of sertraline, paroxetine, fluoxetine and mianserin, and their mixtures on such unusual endpoints as physiological and histological changes of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae. We also determined the bioconcentration of the pharmaceuticals. Fish Embryo Toxicity test was used to analyze the influence on developmental progression. Histological sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Proliferating cells in liver were determined immunohistochemically by detection of Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigens. The bioconcentration factor was measured by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Pharmaceuticals were used at low, medium and high concentrations in mixtures and at medium concentration as single compound. Exposure to the analyzed pharmaceuticals increased the rate of abnormal embryo and larvae development, accelerated the hatching time and affected the total hatching rate. Three-times lower proliferation of hepatocytes was observed in larvae exposed to paroxetine, mianserin, sertraline and the mixture of the pharmaceuticals at the highest concentrations. The highest bioaccumulation factor (BCF) was obtained for sertraline. The BCF of the analyzed compounds was higher if the organisms were exposed to the mixtures than to single pharmaceuticals. To conclude, the exposure of zebrafish larvae to selected antidepressants and their mixtures may cause disturbances in the organogenesis of fish even at environmental concentrations.

Development and Application of a Novel QuEChERS Method for Monitoring of Tributyltin and Triphenyltin in Bottom Sediments of the Odra River Estuary, North Westernmost Part of Poland

A Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) extraction method combined with Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for determination of organotin compounds (OTC) has been newly developed. The novel analytical method was validated and the quality of the results was tested by the use of certificate reference material of freshwater sediment BCR 646. The method was applied in determination of OTC concentration in real samples of bottom sediments collected from the Polish part of Odra River Estuary. The samples came from locations with different anthropogenic impact. Additionally, the extraction recovery of OTC and matrix effect on MS signal response was investigated based on those real environmental samples. It was found that organic compounds and anthropogenic contaminations present in bottom sediments may affect extraction efficiency of the organotin compounds (OTC) and change the matrix effect on MS signal response. The highest concentrations of tributyltin were found in bottom sediments collected from locations in vicinity of the Szczecin harbor and shipyards. The presence of triphenyltin above limit of detection (5 ng TPhT/g of sediment) was observed only in two samples and its concentration was several times lower compared to concentration of tributyltin (from 58 ng/g to 5263 ng/g). In spite of the fact that, the application of TBT-based paints on hull of vessel entering EU ports has been banned by European Commission regulation No. 782/2003 since 2008, the OTC compounds are still present in bottom sediment and pose significant threat to the environment. This threat should be taken into account during dredging of waterways and other hydrotechnical works.

Analytical and ecotoxicological studies on degradation of fluoxetine and fluvoxamine by potassium ferrate

A large amount of pharmaceuticals are flushed to environment via sewage system. The compounds are persistent in environment and are very difficult to remove in drinking water treatment processes. Degradation of fluoxetine (FLU) and fluvoxamine (FLX) by ferrate(VI) were investigated. For the 10 mg/L of FLU and FLX, 35% and 50% of the compounds were degraded in the presence of 50 mg/L FeO₄^2- within 10 minutes, respectively. After 10 minutes of the reaction, degradation of FLU and FLX is affected by formation of by-products which were likely more reactive with ferrate and competed in the reaction with FeO₄^2-. In the case of FLU, the identified degradation by-products were hydrofluoxetine, N-methyl-3-phenyl-2-propen-1-amine, 4-(trifluoromethyl)phenol and 1-{[(1R,S)-1-Phenyl-2-propen-1-yl]oxy}-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzene. In the case of FLX, the degradation by-products were fluvoxamine acid and 5-methoxy-1-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]pent-2-en-1-imine. The results of the ecotoxicological study based on protozoa Spirostomum ambiguum have shown that 50 mg/L FeO₄^2- reduced toxicity of 10 mg/L of FLU and FLX by around 50%. However, in the case of FLX, the results of the ecotoxicological study suggested formation of slightly more toxic compound(s) than FLX during reaction with FeO₄^2-. Application of ferrate(VI) is a viable option for drinking water treatment process; however, caution is needed due to formation of by-products with unknown human health risk.

Influence of photolabile pharmaceuticals on the photodegradation and toxicity of fluoxetine and fluvoxamine

Pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment may be decomposed by abiotic and biotic factors. Photodegradation is the most investigated abiotic process, as it occurs in the natural environment and may be applied in wastewater treatment technology. Although pharmaceuticals are detected in effluents and surface water in a mixture, the photodegradation process is mainly evaluated with single compounds. The photodegradation of fluoxetine (FLU) and fluvoxamine (FLX) in the presence of diclofenac (DCF) and triclosan (TCS) was investigated with HPLC and bioassay. FLU did not degrade under UV-Vis irradiation in SunTest CPS+ either with or without the tested additives, although small amounts of desmethyl fluoxetine and 4-(trifluoromethyl)phenol were formed. In contrast, during irradiation, FLX isomerized to cis-FLX. This process was enhanced by DCF and TCS, but to a lesser degree than by humic acids. Thus, the presence and composition of the matrix should be considered in the environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals. As the toxicity of the tested solutions depended only on the concentration of the tested drugs, it was suggested that the biological activity of the photodegradation products was lower than that of the parent compounds.

Occurrence of antimicrobial agents, drug-resistant bacteria, and genes in the sewage-impacted Vistula River (Poland)

Antimicrobial agents (antimicrobials) are a group of therapeutic and hygienic agents that either kill microorganisms or inhibit their growth. Their occurrence in surface water may reveal harmful effects on aquatic biota and challenge microbial populations. Recently, there is a growing concern over the contamination of surface water with both antimicrobial agents and multidrug-resistant bacteria. The aim of the study was the determination of the presence of selected antimicrobials at specific locations of the Vistula River (Poland), as well as in tap water samples originating from the Warsaw region. Analysis was performed using the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry method. In addition, the occurrence of drug-resistant bacteria and resistance genes was determined using standard procedures. This 2-year study is the first investigation of the simultaneous presence of antimicrobial agents, drug-resistant bacteria, and genes in Polish surface water. In Poland, relatively high concentrations of macrolides are observed in both surface and tap water. Simultaneous to the high macrolide levels in the environment, the presence of the erm B gene, coding the resistance to macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramin, was detected in almost all sampling sites. Another ubiquitous gene was int1, an element of the 5'-conserved segment of class 1 integrons that encode site-specific integrase. Also, resistant isolates of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis and Gram-negative bacteria were recovered. Multidrug-resistant bacteria isolates of Gram-negative and Enterococcus were also detected. The results show that wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are the main source of most antimicrobials, resistant bacteria, and genes in the aquatic environment, probably due to partial purification during wastewater treatment processes.

Recovery of Lemna minor after exposure to sulfadimethoxine irradiated and non-irradiated in a solar simulator

Sulfonamides are the second most widely used group of veterinary antibiotics which are often detected in the environment. They are eliminated from freshwaters mainly through photochemical degradation. The toxicity of sulfadimethoxine (SDM) was evaluated with the use of Lemna minor before and after 1- and 4-h irradiation in a SunTest CPS+ solar simulator. Eight endpoints consisting of: number and total area of fronds, fresh weight, chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids, activity of catalase and guaiacol peroxidase, and protein content were determined. The total frond area and chlorophyll b content were the most sensitive endpoints with EC50 of 478 and 554 μg  L^-1, respectively. The activity of guaiacol peroxidase and catalase increased at SDM concentrations higher than 125 and 500 μg  L^-1, respectively. The SDM photodegradation rate for first order kinetics and the half-life were 0.259 h^-1 and 2.67  h, respectively. The results show that the toxicity of irradiated solutions was caused by SDM only, and the photoproducts appeared to be either non-toxic or much less toxic to L. minor than the parent compound. To study the recovery potential of L. minor, after 7 days exposure in SDM solutions, the plants were transferred to fresh medium and incubated for the next 7 days. L. minor has the ability to regenerate, but a 7-day recovery phase is not sufficient for it to return to an optimal physiological state.

Occurrence of cardiovascular drugs in the sewage-impacted Vistula River and in tap water in the Warsaw region (Poland)

In recent years, cardiovascular diseases were the second most common cause of death worldwide. Therefore, the consumption of drugs used to treat cardiovascular diseases is high. So far, there were no such comprehensive reports regarding the presence of cardiovascular drugs in surface and tap waters, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe. The aim of our study was to determine the presence of 30 pharmaceutically active compounds and some of their metabolites, at specific points of the Vistula River and in tap water samples in the Warsaw region. The analysis was performed using the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry method, coupled to solid-phase extraction. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first time where the presence of ciprofibrate in the environment was investigated. Cardiovascular drugs found at the highest concentrations (reaching 1 μg/L or higher) in surface water were beta-blockers, sartans and diuretics. In tap water samples, trace amounts of pharmaceuticals were detected, for almost all target compounds. This highlights their inadequate elimination by the treatment facility used in the Warsaw region. The presence of cardiovascular compounds in the aquatic environment could have a long-term effect even at a low exposure level, since synergy effects amongst pharmaceuticals may occur.

Occurrence of immunosuppressive drugs and their metabolites in the sewage-impacted Vistula and Utrata Rivers and in tap water from the Warsaw region (Poland)

Immunosuppresive therapy following organ transplant frequently includes treatment with tacrolimus and mycophenolic acid derivatives. These pharmaceuticals may enter the environment through wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and may have a potentially harmful effect on aquatic biota. Tacrolimus, mycophenolic acid and their metabolites were measured at specific points of a large Polish river (Vistula), a smaller river (Utrata) and in tap water samples from the Warsaw region. Analysis was performed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, after solid phase extraction for water samples, or QuEChERS extraction for sediments. Residues of tacrolimus were below quantitation limits in both water and sediment samples. However, in water samples mycophenolic acid concentrations were measured at up to 180 ng L(-1) downstream of WWTP outfalls. No immunosuppressive drugs were detected in tap water. Concentrations of mycophenolic acid exceeded the predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) value in some Polish surface water, and risk calculations predicted at least twice higher concentrations in some other countries of the European Union. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of these immunosuppressive drug concentrations in the environment.

Analytical, toxicological and kinetic investigation of decomposition of the drug diclofenac in waters and wastes using gamma radiation

The radiolytic decomposition of the drug diclofenac (DCF), and in limited extent, also two other widely used drugs, ibuprofen and carbamazepine, was examined using liquid chromatography (LC) methods. The efficiency of DCF decomposition was examined in function of the absorbed dose of gamma radiation, and also in the presence of selected scavengers of radicals, which are commonly present in natural waters and wastes. Three different tests were employed for the monitoring of toxicity changes in the irradiated DCF solutions. The LC/mass spectrometry (MS) was used for the determination of products of DCF radiolysis. Using pulse-radiolysis method with the spectrophotometric detection, the rate constant values were determined for reactions of DCF with the main products of water radiolysis: hydroxyl radicals (1.24 ± 0.02) × 10(10) M(-1) s(-1) and hydrated electrons (3.1 ± 0.2) × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1). Their values indicate that both oxidative and reductive processes in radiolytic decomposition of DCF can take place in irradiated diluted aqueous solutions of DCF. The possibility of decomposition of all examined analytes was investigated in samples of river water and hospital waste. Compared to the previous studies, the conducted measurements in real samples were carried out at the concentration levels, which are close to those reported earlier in environmental samples. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Determination of selected cardiovascular active compounds in environmental aquatic samples--Methods and results, a review of global publications from the last 10 years

In recent years cardiovascular diseases were the second most common cause of death worldwide. Therefore, the consumption of cardiovascular drugs is high, which might result in an increase of them in the environment. The major source of aquatic environmental contamination is still effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Unfortunately removal of cardiovascular active compounds and/or their metabolites in WWTP is still unsatisfactory. Among microbial and abiotic degradation of these compounds during wastewater processes, photolysis and photodegradation of cardiovascular drugs also play an important role. New formed compounds may be more toxic or retain the properties of parent compounds. Thus the main goal of this paper was to provide a detailed and comprehensive review of used analytical methods, coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, to determine the presence of cardiovascular compounds in surface waters as well as WTTPs effluents and influents. Exhaustive preparation for mass spectrometry detection and quantitation including samples pre-treatment, and the common problem of the matrix effect are thoroughly explored in this paper. Additionally, the article provides some hints in respect of recently noted problematic issue related to the availability of specific standards for the analysis of drug's metabolites. Furthermore, information concerning the metabolism of cardiovascular active compounds including differences in metabolism within enantiomers is described. This article also touches on the problems associated with environmental risk assessment due to the presence of cardiovasculars in the environment. The paper also tries to explain differences in concentrations among cardiovascular compounds between countries worldwide.

Evaluation of direct and indirect photodegradation of mianserin with high-performance liquid chromatography and short-term bioassays

The widespread use of pharmaceuticals has lead to their detection in surface and ground waters. In the last year antidepressants in particular have shown very high growth dynamics of consumption and numerous research shows that these pharmaceuticals are detected in the environment and even in drinking water. Drugs and their metabolites can be subject to two types of photoreaction, direct and indirect photodegradation. These pharmaceuticals even at low concentration can have adverse effects on aquatic life, and the resulting photoproducts can be more toxic than parents compounds. The aim of this study was to evaluate the direct and indirect photodegradation of mianserin. The kinetics of the process and the identification of photoproducts were investigated by HPLC-PDA and HPLC-MS/MS, respectively. Ecotoxicity of mianserin before and after irradiation was assessed with a battery of assays with bacteria, protozoa and crustacea. The results show that mianserin was not toxic to Vibrio fischeri (Microtox), but its toxicity to protozoan Spirostomum ambiguum (Spirotox) and crustacean Thamnocephalus platyurus (Thamnotoxkit F(™)) was comparable to other antidepressants. On the basis of the results of the toxicity and HPLC before and after irradiation it can be seen that the decrease toxicity of mianserin was related only to a decrease of its concentration. The photoproducts had no impact to toxicity. The direct photodegradation of mianserin was more effective in UV/vis light than vis light. However the presence of humic acid in the indirect photodegradation increases the rate of degradation without regard to the kind of used light.

The development of the LC-MS/MS method based on S-9 biotransformation for detection of metabolites of selected β-adrenolytics in surface water

Pharmaceuticals consumption in Poland is high. One of the most frequently prescribed is cardiovascular drugs. Due to their relatively high hydrophilic properties, they are not completely eliminated during wastewater treatment processes. In contrast to parent compounds, the presence of cardiovascular metabolites is rarely investigated in surface waters. The goal of this paper was to develop the methodology for detection of metabolites of selected beta-blockers: metoprolol, bisoprolol and propranolol. These metabolites were obtained by the incubation of parent compounds with S9 rat's liver fraction and used for the development and optimization of the low resolution LC-MS/MS method. Accurate mass spectrometry measurements were applied for validation of this method. The incubation of the parent compound with S9 fraction resulted only in propranolol's metabolites generation. However, on the basis of hydroxypropranolol, theoretically transitions for mono- and dihydroxy-metoprolol and bisoprolol derivatives were generated for MRM mode and applied for surface water analysis. The analysis revealed the presence of some of the target metabolites in the Vistula river. This work is the first one proposing the application of biotrasformation in the methodology of low resolution LC-MS-MS analysis of metabolites of cardiovascular drugs in surface water.

Evaluation of photodegradation, phototoxicity and photogenotoxicity of ofloxacin in ointments with sunscreens and in solutions

Fluoroquinolones are widely used anti-bacterial agents that are known to exhibit moderate to severe phototoxicity. Furthermore some of them reveal photogenotoxicity under UV irradiation. Incidence of side effects due to light exposure may be augmented, if the medicament is used topically. The main goal of this work was to compare the extent of photodegradation of ofloxacin in ointments with various excipients: hydrated or non-hydrated base and the addition of sunscreens: bisoctrizole (Tinosorb M) and bemotrizinol (Tinosorb S). The next goal of present work was the analysis of phototoxicity and photogenotoxicity of ofloxacin photodegradation products in tested ointments and in solutions with the umu-test, the test of mitotic gene conversion with Saccharomyces cerevisiae D7 and the micronucleus assay with V79 Chinese hamster cell line. At the same time an attempt was made to determinate the photodegradation products of ofloxacin in different unguents variants. We observed a significant photoprotective effect in ointment with Tinosorb M. We did not evaluated relevant differences regarding the genotoxicity and toxicity of unguents. However, the pre-irradiated ofloxacin solutions in comparison to samples stored in the dark were significantly more genotoxic to bacteria, slightly increased the number of micronuclei in V79 cell line and were toxic to the yeast strain.

Polylactide conjugates of camptothecin with different drug release abilities

Camptothecin-polylactide conjugates (CMPT-PLA) were synthesized by covalent incorporation of CMPT into PLA of different microstructure, i.e., atactic PLA and atactic-block-isotactically enriched PLA (P_m = 0.79) via urethane bonds. The kinetic release of CPMT from CMPT-PLA conjugates, tested in vitro under different conditions, is possible in both cases and notably, strongly dependent on PLA microstructure. It shows that release properties of drug-PLA conjugates can be tailored by controlled design of the PLA microstructure, and allow in the case of CMPT-PLA conjugates for the development of highly controlled biodegradable CMPT systems—important delivery systems for anti-cancer agents.

Assessment of the chemical, microbiological and toxicological aspects of post-processing water from underground coal gasification

The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive characterisation (including chemical, microbiological and toxicological parameters) of water after the underground coal gasification (UCG) process. This is the first report in which these parameters were analysed together to assess the environmental risk of the water generated during the simulation of the underground coal gasification (UCG) process performed by the Central Mining Institute (Poland). Chemical analysis of the water indicated many hazardous chemical compounds, including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, phenols and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Additionally, large quantities of inorganic compounds from the coal and ashes produced during the volatilisation process were noted. Due to the presence of refractory and inhibitory compounds in the post-processing water samples, the microbiological and toxicological analyses revealed the high toxicity of the UCG post-processing water. Among the tested microorganisms, mesophilic, thermophilic, psychrophilic, spore-forming, anaerobic and S-oxidizing bacteria were identified. However, the number of detected microorganisms was very low. The psychrophilic bacteria dominated among tested bacteria. There were no fungi or Actinomycetes in any of the water samples. Preliminary study revealed that hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria were metabolically active in the water samples. The samples were very toxic to the biotests, with the TU50 reaching 262. None of biotests was the most sensitive to all samples. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity testing of the water samples in Vicia uncovered strong cytotoxic and clastogenic effects. Furthermore, TUNEL indicated that all of the water samples caused sporadic DNA fragmentation in the nuclei of the roots.

Occurrence of antidepressant residues in the sewage-impacted Vistula and Utrata rivers and in tap water in Warsaw (Poland)

Antidepressants, even at low concentrations, can reveal some adverse effects on aquatic life due to disturbing homeostasis throughout the central and peripheral nervous system both in vertebrates and invertebrates. To date there have not been any reports regarding the presence of these pharmaceuticals in surface and tap waters in Eastern Europe. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine the presence of 21 antidepressant pharmaceuticals at specific points of the main Polish river - the Vistula, a smaller river of the Warsaw region - the Utrata, as well as in tap water samples of Warsaw. Samples were collected twice at one month intervals and analysed using solid-phase extraction (SPE) technique coupled with the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) method operated under the multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM). This is the first study where active compounds such as moclobemid or trazodone in the environment have been investigated. Environmental risk assessment of antidepressants in Poland was estimated on the basis of annuals sale data extracted from the NFZ (Narodowy Fundusz Zdrowia-National Health Service) base of reimbursed pharmaceuticals(1). Predicted environmental concentration (PEC) of target pharmaceuticals were compared with their measured concentration (MEC). Moreover, the application of the EMEA/CHMP guideline for environmental risk assessment of the antidepressants was discussed. The highest concentration of antidepressants was observed in the small river Utrata. In tap water only trace amounts of antidepressants including citalopram (up to 1.5ng/l), mianserin (up to 0.9ng/l), sertraline (<3.1ng/l), moclobemid (up to 0.3ng/l) and venlafaxine (up to 1.9ng/l) were detected. However this highlights their inadequate elimination in the drinking waste treatment facility. The presence of antidepressants in drinking water and the aquatic environment could have long-term effects even at low exposure level, especially since synergy amongst pharmaceutical pollutants may occur.

An assessment of the genotoxic effects of landfill leachates using bacterial and plant tests

Two bacterial tests (the Ames test and the umu-test) and the Allium test were used to assess the genotoxicity of aqueous leachates from municipal solid waste landfill sites in Southern Poland. A comparison of the sensitivity of the applied tests was performed. None of the tested samples revealed genotoxic activity in the umu-test and thus did not appear to be sensitive enough for evaluations of leachates. Two out of 22 leachates were described as genotoxic in the Ames test and 3 out of 6 leachates in the Allium test. All of the analyzed leachates samples affected cell divisions. Two of the tests applied, the Allium and Ames test, revealed the high genotoxicity of leachate 4. Among the bioassays used in these studies, the Allium test proved to be more sensitive than bacterial tests for the investigation of leachate toxicity. The results suggest that the Allium cytogenetic bioassay is efficient and simple for genotoxicity studies of leachates. The potential correlations between the chemical characteristics and genotoxic effects is discussed. The biological effects of selected appeared to be related to chemical parameters. Leachates have a genotoxic potential and pose a risk to human health and the environment. A combination of biotests and chemical analyses is the best approach for the assessment of the risk or impact of leachates.

Radiolytic decomposition of pesticide carbendazim in waters and wastes for environmental protection

The radiolytic degradation of widely used fungicide, carbendazim, in synthetic aqueous solutions and industrial wastewater was investigated employing γ-irradiation. The effect of the absorbed dose, initial concentration and pH of irradiated solution on the effectiveness of carbendazim decomposition were investigated. Decomposition of carbendazim in 100 μM concentration in synthetic aqueous solutions required irradiation with 600 Gy dose. The aqueous solutions of carbendazim have been irradiated in different conditions, where particular active radical species from water radiolysis predominate. The obtained data have been compared with the kinetic modeling. The reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography was used for the determination of carbendazim and its radiolytic decomposition products in irradiated solutions. The changes of toxicity of irradiated solutions were examined with different test organisms and human leukemia cells.

Estimation of the environmental risk posed by landfills using chemical, microbiological and ecotoxicological testing of leachates

The leachates from 22 municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill sites in Southern Poland were characterized by evaluation of chemical, microbiological and ecotoxicological parameters. Chemical analyses were mainly focused on the identification of the priority hazardous substances according to Directive on Priority Substances, 2008/105/EC (a daughter directive of the WFD) in leachates. As showed, only five substances (Cd, Hg, hexachlorobutadiene, pentachlorobenzene and PAHs) were detected in the leachates. The compounds tested were absent or present at very low concentrations. Among them, only PAHs were found in all samples in the range from 0.057 to 77.2 μg L⁻¹. The leachates were contaminated with bacteria, including aerobic, psychrophilic and mesophilic bacteria, coliform and fecal coliforms, and spore-forming-bacteria, including Clostridium perfringens, and with filamentous fungi. From the analysis of specific microorganism groups (indicators of environmental pollution by pathogenic or opportunistic pathogenic organisms) it can be concluded that the landfill leachates showed sanitary and epidemiological hazard. In the ecotoxicological study, a battery of tests comprised of 5 bioassays, i.e. Microtox(®), Spirotox, Rotoxkit F™, Thamnotoxkit F™ and Daphtoxkit F™ magna was applied. The leachate samples were classified as toxic in 13.6%, highly toxic in 54.6% and very highly toxic in 31.8%. The Spirotox test was the most sensitive bioassay used. The percentage of class weight score was very high - above 60%; these samples could definitely be considered seriously hazardous and acutely toxic to the fauna and microflora. No correlations were found between the toxicity values and chemical parameters. The toxicity of leachate samples cannot be explained by low levels of the priority pollutants. It seems that other kinds of xenobiotics present in the samples at subacute levels gave the high aggregate toxic effect. The chemical, ecotoxicological and microbiological parameters of the landfill leachates should be analyzed together to assess the environmental risk posed by landfill emissions.

Application of a microbiotests battery for complete toxicity assessment of rivers

Acute hazard classification based on selected microbiotests was proposed to assess and compare the toxicity of rivers including surface-water, sediment and soil from floodplains. No direct relationship between the classification of pollution for surface-water based on physical-chemical parameters and proposed acute hazard classification based on organisms' sensitivity was observed. The quality of water according to hazard classification was better than in the mandatory classification of pollution, with the domination of Class II (slight acute hazard). The samples of sediment and soil were more toxic and represented Class II or Class III (acute hazard). The results indicated a need to complete the mandatory monitoring of surface-water in rivers with biological monitoring with toxicity assessment of rivers including water, sediment and soil from floodplains based on acute hazard classification. This integral approach enables a complete evaluation of the toxicity of aquatic life together with an estimation of negative changes in river systems.