Development and validation of a salivary tau biomarker in Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Total tau (t-tau) and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) are abnormally elevated in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Tau is also present in the salivary gland tissue and saliva, and salivary measures might produce an accurate, accessible, and inexpensive biomarker.

METHODS

Using unstimulated saliva and Western blot analysis, we quantified the p-tau/t-tau ratio at different phosphorylation sites.

RESULTS

We found that for one phosphorylation site, S396, p-tau/t-tau ratio was significantly elevated in patients with AD compared with normal elderly control subjects. The elevation in saliva, however, did not correlate with cerebrospinal fluid tau or with brain measures such as hippocampal volume.

DISCUSSION

There is significant elevation of p-tau/t-tau ratio for the S396 phosphorylation site. Large variation in the AD salivary tau levels, however, limits the utility of this test as a clinical biomarker.

Interaction of 14-3-3ζ with microtubule-associated protein tau within Alzheimer's disease neurofibrillary tangles

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of abnormal, straight filaments and paired helical filaments (PHFs) that are coated with amorphous aggregates. When PHFs are treated with alkali, they untwist and form filaments with a ribbonlike morphology. Tau protein is the major component of all of these ultrastructures. 14-3-3ζ is present in NFTs and is significantly upregulated in AD brain. The molecular basis of the association of 14-3-3ζ within NFTs and the pathological significance of its association are not known. In this study, we have found that 14-3-3ζ is copurified and co-immunoprecipitates with tau from NFTs of AD brain extract. In vitro, tau binds to both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated tau. When incubated with 14-3-3ζ, tau forms amorphous aggregates, single-stranded, straight filaments, ribbonlike filaments, and PHF-like filaments, all of which resemble the corresponding ultrastructures found in AD brain. Immuno-electron microscopy determined that both tau and 14-3-3ζ are present in these ultrastructures and that they are formed in an incubation time-dependent manner. Amorphous aggregates are formed first. As the incubation time increases, the size of amorphous aggregates increases and they are incorporated into single-stranded filaments. Single-stranded filaments laterally associate to form double-stranded, ribbonlike, and PHF-like filaments. Both tau and phosphorylated tau aggregate in a similar manner when they are incubated with 14-3-3ζ. Our data suggest that 14-3-3ζ has a role in the fibrillization of tau in AD brain, and that tau phosphorylation does not affect 14-3-3ζ-induced tau aggregation.

Early growth response 1 (Egr-1) regulates phosphorylation of microtubule-associated protein tau in mammalian brain

In the normal brain, tau protein is phosphorylated at a number of proline- and non-proline directed sites, which reduce tau microtubule binding and thus regulate microtubule dynamics. In Alzheimer disease (AD), tau is abnormally hyperphosphorylated, leading to neurofibrillary tangle formation and microtubule disruption, suggesting a loss of regulatory mechanisms controlling tau phosphorylation. Early growth response 1 (Egr-1) is a transcription factor that is significantly up-regulated in AD brain. The pathological significance of this up-regulation is not known. In this study, we found that lentivirus-mediated overexpression of Egr-1 in rat brain hippocampus and primary neurons in culture activates proline-directed kinase Cdk5, inactivates PP1, promotes tau phosphorylation at both proline-directed Ser(396/404) and non-proline-directed Ser(262) sites, and destabilizes microtubules. Furthermore, in Egr-1(-/-) mouse brain, Cdk5 activity was decreased, PP1 activity was increased, and tau phosphorylation was reduced at both proline-directed and non-proline-directed sites. By using nerve growth factor-exposed PC12 cells, we determined that Egr-1 activates Cdk5 to promote phosphorylation of tau and inactivates PP1 via phosphorylation. When Cdk5 was inhibited, tau phosphorylation at both proline- and non-proline directed sites and PP1 phosphorylation were blocked, indicating that Egr-1 acts through Cdk5. By using an in vitro kinase assay and HEK-293 cells transfected with tau, PP1, and Cdk5, we found that Cdk5 phosphorylates Ser(396/404) directly. In addition, by phosphorylating and inactivating PP1, Cdk5 promotes tau phosphorylation at Ser(262) indirectly. Our results indicate that Egr-1 is an in vivo regulator of tau phosphorylation and suggest that in AD brain increased levels of Egr-1 aberrantly activate an Egr-1/Cdk5/PP1 pathway, leading to accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau, thus destabilizing the microtubule cytoskeleton.

Parkinsonian neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and alpha-synuclein mutations promote Tau protein phosphorylation at Ser262 and destabilize microtubule cytoskeleton in vitro

In Parkinson disease (PD) brain, a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons leads to dopamine depletion in the striatum and reduced motor function. Lewy bodies, the characteristic neuropathological lesions found in the brain of PD patients, are composed mainly of α-synuclein protein. Three point mutations in the α-synuclein gene are associated with familial PD. In addition, genome-wide association studies indicate that α-synuclein and Tau protein synergistically increase disease susceptibility in the human population. To determine the mechanism by which α-synuclein and Tau act together, we have used PD-causing neurotoxin MPTP and pathogenic α-synuclein mutants A30P, E46K, and A53T as models. We found that exposure of human neuroblastoma M17 cells to MPTP enhances the intracellular α-synuclein protein level, stimulates Tau protein phosphorylation at Ser(262), and induces apoptosis. In mouse brain, ablation of α-synuclein function significantly suppresses Tau phosphorylation at Ser(262). In vitro, α-synuclein binds to phosphorylated Ser(214) of Tau and stimulates PKA-catalyzed Tau phosphorylation at Ser(262). PD-associated α-synuclein mutations increase α-synuclein binding to Tau and stimulate Tau phosphorylation at Ser(262). In HEK-293 cells, α-synuclein and its all PD-associated mutants destabilize the microtubule cytoskeleton in a similar extent. In contrast, when co-expressed with Tau, these PD-associated mutants destabilize microtubules with significantly higher potency than WT. Our results demonstrate that α-synuclein is an in vivo regulator of Tau protein phosphorylation at Ser(262) and suggest that PD-associated risk factors such as environmental toxins and α-synuclein mutations promote Tau phosphorylation at Ser(262), causing microtubule instability, which leads to loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD brain.

The Parkinson disease-associated A30P mutation stabilizes alpha-synuclein against proteasomal degradation triggered by heme oxygenase-1 over-expression in human neuroblastoma cells

Proteosomal degradation of proteins is one of the major mechanisms of intracellular protein turnover. Failure of the proteosome to degrade misfolded protein is implicated in the accumulation of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease (PD). Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an enzyme that converts heme to free iron, carbon monoxide (CO) and biliverdin (bilirubin precursor) is expressed in response to various stressors. HO-1 is up-regulated in PD- and Alzheimer's disease-affected neural tissues. In this study, we found that HO-1 over-expression engenders dose-dependent decreases in alpha-synuclein protein levels in human neuroblastoma M17 cells. When over-expression of HO-1 was silenced in HO-1 transfected cells, level of alpha-synuclein was restored. Likewise, treatment of HO-1 over-expressing cells with the HO-1 inhibitor, tin mesoporphyrin, the iron chelator deferoxamine or antagonist of CO-dependent cGMP activation, methylene blue, mitigated the HO-1-induced reduction in alpha-synuclein levels. Furthermore, when HO-1 over-expressing cells were treated with the proteosome inhibitors, lactacystin and MG132, level of alpha-synuclein was almost completely restored. In contrast to the effect on alpha-synuclein [wild-type (WT)] levels, HO-1 over-expression did not significantly impact PD-associated alpha-synuclein (A30P) levels in these cells. HO-1 also significantly reduced aggregation of alpha-synuclein (WT) but not that of A30P. Our results suggest that HO-1, which is expressed when neurons are exposed to toxic stimuli capable of inducing protein misfolding, triggers proteosomal degradation of proteins and prevents intracellular accumulation of protein aggregates and inclusions. Resistance to HO-1 induced proteosomal degradation may render the familial PD-associated A30P mutation prone to toxic intracellular aggregation.

Familial FTDP-17 missense mutations inhibit microtubule assembly-promoting activity of tau by increasing phosphorylation at Ser202 in vitro

In Alzheimer disease (AD), frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17) and other tauopathies, tau accumulates and forms paired helical filaments (PHFs) in the brain. Tau isolated from PHFs is phosphorylated at a number of sites, migrates as approximately 60-, 64-, and 68-kDa bands on SDS-gel, and does not promote microtubule assembly. Upon dephosphorylation, the PHF-tau migrates as approximately 50-60-kDa bands on SDS-gels in a manner similar to tau that is isolated from normal brain and promotes microtubule assembly. The site(s) that inhibits microtubule assembly-promoting activity when phosphorylated in the diseased brain is not known. In this study, when tau was phosphorylated by Cdk5 in vitro, its mobility shifted from approximately 60-kDa bands to approximately 64- and 68-kDa bands in a time-dependent manner. This mobility shift correlated with phosphorylation at Ser(202), and Ser(202) phosphorylation inhibited tau microtubule-assembly promoting activity. When several tau point mutants were analyzed, G272V, P301L, V337M, and R406W mutations associated with FTDP-17, but not nonspecific mutations S214A and S262A, promoted Ser(202) phosphorylation and mobility shift to a approximately 68-kDa band. Furthermore, Ser(202) phosphorylation inhibited the microtubule assembly-promoting activity of FTDP-17 mutants more than of WT. Our data indicate that FTDP-17 missense mutations, by promoting phosphorylation at Ser(202), inhibit the microtubule assembly-promoting activity of tau in vitro, suggesting that Ser(202) phosphorylation plays a major role in the development of NFT pathology in AD and related tauopathies.

Inhibition of interleukin 1-induced matrix metalloproteinase 13 expression in human chondrocytes by interferon gamma

BACKGROUND

Despite well-documented immunomodulation by interferon gamma (IFNgamma), its role and mechanism of regulation of matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP13) gene expression in human chondrocytes is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the ability and mechanism of IFNgamma to suppress interleukin 1 (IL1)-induced MMP13 expression in articular chondrocytes.

METHODS

Human chondrocytes were treated with IFNgamma or IL1beta alone or in combination. MMP13 mRNA was analysed by semiquantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR. MMP13 protein, phospho-signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase levels were measured by western blotting. MMP13 promoter luciferase, cytomegalovirus cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CBP)/p300 plasmids and STAT1 small interfering RNA (siRNA) were transfected by the calcium phosphate method. IFNgamma receptor was also neutralised. Activator protein (AP) 1 activity was monitored by the TransAM transcription factor kit. STAT1-CBP/p300 interaction was studied by immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

IFNgamma potently suppressed IL1-induced expression of MMP13 and promoter activity. Blockade with neutralising IFNgamma R1 antibody revealed that MMP13 inhibition by IFNgamma is mediated by the IFN receptor. IFNgamma-stimulated activation of STAT1 was directly correlated with MMP13 suppression. Knockdown of the STAT1 gene by specific siRNA or its inhibition with fludarabine partially restored the IL1beta induction of MMP13 expression and promoter activity. IFNgamma did not alter AP1 binding ability but promoted physical interaction of STAT1 and CBP/p300 coactivator. p300 overexpression reversed IFNgamma inhibition of endogenous MMP13 mRNA expression and exogenous MMP13 promoter activity.

CONCLUSION

IFNgamma, through its receptor, activates STAT1, which binds with CBP/p300 coactivator, sequesters it from the cell system, and thus inhibits transcriptional induction of the MMP13 gene in chondrocytes. IFNgamma and its signalling pathways could be targeted therapeutically for diminishing IL1-induced cartilage degradation by MMP13 in patients with arthritis.

Cyclin-dependent protein kinase 5 primes microtubule-associated protein tau site-specifically for glycogen synthase kinase 3beta

In the preceding paper, we showed that GSK3beta phosphorylates tau at S(202), T(231), S(396), and S(400) in vivo. Phosphorylation of S(202) occurs without priming. Phosphorylation of T(231), on the other hand, requires priming phosphorylation of S(235). Similarly, priming phosphorylation of S(404) is essential for the sequential phosphorylation of S(400) and S(396) by GSK3beta. The priming kinase that phosphorylates tau at S(235) and S(404) in the brain is not known. In this study, we find that in HEK-293 cells cotransfected with tau, GSK3beta, and Cdk5, Cdk5 phosphorylates tau at S(202), S(235), and S(404). S(235) phosphorylation enhances GSK3beta-catalyzed T(231) phosphorylation. Similarly, Cdk5 by phosphorylating S(404) stimulates phosphorylation of S(400) and S(396) by GSK3beta. These data indicate that Cdk5 primes tau for GSK3beta in intact cells. To evaluate if Cdk5 primes tau for GSK3beta in mammalian brain, we examined localizations of Cdk5, tau, and GSK3beta in rat brain. We also analyzed the interaction of Cdk5 with tau and GSK3beta in brain microtubules. We found that Cdk5, GSK3beta, and tau are virtually colocalized in rat brain cortex. When bovine brain microtubules are analyzed by FPLC gel filtration, Cdk5, GSK3beta, and tau coelute within an approximately 450 kDa complex. From the fractions containing the approximately 450 kDa complex, tau, Cdk5, and GSK3beta co-immunoprecipitate with each other. In HEK-293 cells transfected with tau, Cdk5, and GSK3beta in different combinations, tau binds to Cdk5 in a manner independent of GSK3beta and to GSK3beta in a manner independent of Cdk5. However, Cdk5 and GSK3beta bind to each other only in the presence of tau, suggesting that tau connects Cdk5 and GSK3beta. Our results suggest that in the brain, tau, Cdk5, and GSK3beta are components of an approximately 450 kDa complex. Within the complex, Cdk5 phosphorylates tau at S(235) and primes it for phosphorylation of T(231) by GSK3beta. Similarly, Cdk5 by phosphorylating tau at S(404) primes tau for a sequential phosphorylation of S(400) and S(396) by GSK3beta.

14-3-3 connects glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta to tau within a brain microtubule-associated tau phosphorylation complex

In a recent study, we reported that in bovine brain extract, glycogen synthase kinase-3beta and tau are parts of an approximately 400-500 kDa microtubule-associated tau phosphorylation complex (Sun, W., Qureshi, H. Y., Cafferty, P. W., Sobue, K., Agarwal-Mawal, A., Neufield, K. D., and Paudel, H. K. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 11933-11940). In this study, we find that when purified brain microtubules are subjected to Superose 12 gel filtration column chromatography, the dimeric scaffold protein 14-3-3 zeta co-elutes with the tau phosphorylation complex components tau and GSK3 beta. From gel filtration fractions containing the tau phosphorylation complex, 14-3-3 zeta, GSK3 beta, and tau co-immunoprecipitate with each other. From extracts of bovine brain, COS-7 cells, and HEK-293 cells transfected with GSK3 beta, 14-3-3 zeta co-precipitates with GSK3 beta, indicating that GSK3 beta binds to 14-3-3 zeta. From HEK-293 cells transfected with tau, GSK3 beta, and 14-3-3 zeta in different combinations, tau co-immunoprecipitates with GSK3 beta only in the presence of 14-3-3 zeta. In vitro, approximately 10-fold more tau binds to GSK3 beta in the presence of than in the absence of 14-3-3 zeta. In transfected HEK-293 cells, 14-3-3 zeta stimulates GSK3 beta-catalyzed tau phosphorylation in a dose-dependent manner. These data indicate that in brain, the 14-3-3 zeta dimer simultaneously binds and bridges tau and GSK3 beta and stimulates GSK3 beta-catalyzed tau phosphorylation.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta is complexed with tau protein in brain microtubules

In Alzheimer's disease, microtubule-associated protein tau is hyperphosphorylated by an unknown mechanism and is aggregated into paired helical filaments. Hyperphosphorylation causes loss of tau function, microtubule instability, and neurodegeneration. Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3beta) has been implicated in the phosphorylation of tau in normal and Alzheimer's disease brain. The molecular mechanism of GSK3beta-tau interaction has not been clarified. In this study, we find that when microtubules are disassembled, microtubule-associated GSK3beta dissociates from microtubules. From a gel filtration column, the dissociated GSK3beta elutes as an approximately 400-kDa complex. When fractions containing the approximately 400-kDa complex are chromatographed through an anti-GSK3beta immunoaffinity column, tau co-elutes with GSK3beta. From fractions containing the approximately 400-kDa complex, both tau and GSK3beta co-immunoprecipitate with each other. GSK3beta binds to nonphosphorylated tau, and the GSK3beta-binding region is located within the N-terminal projection domain of tau. In vitro, GSK3beta associates with microtubules only in the presence of tau. From brain extract, approximately 6-fold more GSK3beta co-immunoprecipitates with tau than GSK3alpha. These data indicate that, in brain, GSK3beta is bound to tau within a approximately 400-kDa microtubule-associated complex, and GSK3beta associates with microtubules via tau.