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Contreras-Avilés W, Heuvelink E, Marcelis LFM, Kappers IF. Ménage à trois: light, terpenoids, and quality of plants. Trends Plant Sci 2024; 29:572-588. [PMID: 38494370 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2024.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
In controlled environment agriculture (CEA), light is used to impact terpenoid production and improve plant quality. In this review we discuss various aspects of light as important regulators of terpenoid production in different plant organs. Spectral quality primarily modifies terpenoid profiles, while intensity and photoperiod influence abundances. The central regulator of light signal transduction elongated hypocotyl 5 (HY5) controls transcriptional regulation of terpenoids under UV, red (R), and blue (B) light. The larger the fraction of R and green (G) light, the more beneficial the effect on monoterpenoid and sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis, and such an effect may depend on the presence of B light. A large fraction of R light is mostly detrimental to tetraterpenoid production. We conclude that light is a promising tool to steer terpenoid production and potentially tailor the quality of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willy Contreras-Avilés
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700, AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Plant Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700, AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ep Heuvelink
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700, AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leo F M Marcelis
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700, AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Plant Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700, AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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2
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Zhang Y, Kashkooli AB, Blom S, Zhao T, Bouwmeester HJ, Kappers IF. The Capsicum terpenoid biosynthetic module is affected by spider-mite herbivory. Plant Mol Biol 2023; 113:303-321. [PMID: 37995005 PMCID: PMC10721696 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-023-01390-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
In response to herbivory, Capsicum annuum leaves adapt their specialized metabolome that may protect the plant against herbivore feeding either directly or indirectly through volatile metabolites acting as cues for natural enemies of the herbivore. The volatile blend of spider-mite infested leaves differs from non-challenged leaves predominantly by a higher contribution of mono- and sesquiterpenes. In addition to these terpenoids released into the headspace, the terpenoid composition of the leaves alters upon herbivory. All this suggests an important role for terpenoids and their biosynthetic machinery in the defence against herbivory. Here, we show that the C. annuum genome contains a terpene synthase (TPS) gene family of 103 putative members of which structural analysis revealed that 27 encode functional enzymes. Transcriptome analysis showed that several TPS loci were differentially expressed upon herbivory in leaves of two C. annuum genotypes, that differ in susceptibility towards spider mites. The relative expression of upstream biosynthetic genes from the mevalonate and the methylerythritol phosphate pathway also altered upon herbivory, revealing a shift in the metabolic flux through the terpene biosynthetic module. The expression of multiple genes potentially acting downstream of the TPSs, including cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, UDP-glucosyl transferases, and transcription factors strongly correlated with the herbivory-induced TPS genes. A selection of herbivory-induced TPS genes was functionally characterized through heterologous expression and the products that these enzymes catalysed matched with the volatile and non-volatile terpenoids induced in response to herbivory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Zhang
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Arman B Kashkooli
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Suze Blom
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Bioscience, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tao Zhao
- Biosystematics, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Xi'an, China
| | - Harro J Bouwmeester
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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3
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Verhoeven A, Finkers-Tomczak A, Prins P, Valkenburg-van Raaij DR, van Schaik CC, Overmars H, van Steenbrugge JJM, Tacken W, Varossieau K, Slootweg EJ, Kappers IF, Quentin M, Goverse A, Sterken MG, Smant G. The root-knot nematode effector MiMSP32 targets host 12-oxophytodienoate reductase 2 to regulate plant susceptibility. New Phytol 2023; 237:2360-2374. [PMID: 36457296 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
To establish persistent infections in host plants, herbivorous invaders, such as root-knot nematodes, must rely on effectors for suppressing damage-induced jasmonate-dependent host defenses. However, at present, the effector mechanisms targeting the biosynthesis of biologically active jasmonates to avoid adverse host responses are unknown. Using yeast two-hybrid, in planta co-immunoprecipitation, and mutant analyses, we identified 12-oxophytodienoate reductase 2 (OPR2) as an important host target of the stylet-secreted effector MiMSP32 of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. MiMSP32 has no informative sequence similarities with other functionally annotated genes but was selected for the discovery of novel effector mechanisms based on evidence of positive, diversifying selection. OPR2 catalyzes the conversion of a derivative of 12-oxophytodienoate to jasmonic acid (JA) and operates parallel to 12-oxophytodienoate reductase 3 (OPR3), which controls the main pathway in the biosynthesis of jasmonates. We show that MiMSP32 targets OPR2 to promote parasitism of M. incognita in host plants independent of OPR3-mediated JA biosynthesis. Artificially manipulating the conversion of the 12-oxophytodienoate by OPRs increases susceptibility to multiple unrelated plant invaders. Our study is the first to shed light on a novel effector mechanism targeting this process to regulate the susceptibility of host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ava Verhoeven
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Plant Stress Resilience, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Plant-Environment Signaling, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Anna Finkers-Tomczak
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Pjotr Prins
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Debbie R Valkenburg-van Raaij
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Casper C van Schaik
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hein Overmars
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Joris J M van Steenbrugge
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wannes Tacken
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Koen Varossieau
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Erik J Slootweg
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Michaël Quentin
- INRAE, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ISA, F-06903, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Aska Goverse
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Mark G Sterken
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Geert Smant
- Laboratory of Nematology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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He J, Verstappen F, Jiao A, Dicke M, Bouwmeester HJ, Kappers IF. Terpene synthases in cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and their contribution to herbivore-induced volatile terpenoid emission. New Phytol 2022; 233:862-877. [PMID: 34668204 PMCID: PMC9299122 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Terpenoids play important roles in flavour, pollinator attraction and defence of plants. In cucumber (Cucumis sativus) they are important components of the herbivore-induced plant volatile blend that attracts natural enemies of herbivores. We annotated the cucumber TERPENE SYNTHASE gene (CsTPS) family and characterized their involvement in the response towards herbivores with different feeding guilds using a combined molecular and biochemical approach. Transcripts of multiple CsTPS genes were upregulated in leaves upon herbivory and the products generated by the expressed proteins match the terpenoids recorded in the volatile blend released by herbivore-damaged leaves. Spatial and temporal analysis of the promoter activity of CsTPS genes showed that cell content-feeding spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) and thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) induced promoter activity of CsTPS9 and CsTPS19 within hours after initiation of infestation, while phloem-feeding aphids (Myzus persicae) induced CsTPS2 promoter activity. Our findings offer detailed insights into the involvement of the TPS gene family in the dynamics and fine-tuning of the emission of herbivore-induced plant volatiles in cucumber, and open a new avenue to understand molecular mechanisms that affect plant-herbivore interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun He
- Laboratory of Plant PhysiologyPlant Sciences GroupWageningen University & Research6700AAWageningenthe Netherlands
- Citrus Research InstituteSouthwest University400712ChongqingChina
| | - Francel Verstappen
- Laboratory of Plant PhysiologyPlant Sciences GroupWageningen University & Research6700AAWageningenthe Netherlands
| | - Ao Jiao
- Laboratory of Plant PhysiologyPlant Sciences GroupWageningen University & Research6700AAWageningenthe Netherlands
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of EntomologyPlant Sciences GroupWageningen University & Research6700AAWageningenthe Netherlands
| | - Harro J. Bouwmeester
- Laboratory of Plant PhysiologyPlant Sciences GroupWageningen University & Research6700AAWageningenthe Netherlands
- Plant Hormone Biology GroupSwammerdam Institute for Life SciencesUniversity of Amsterdam1000BEAmsterdamthe Netherlands
| | - Iris F. Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant PhysiologyPlant Sciences GroupWageningen University & Research6700AAWageningenthe Netherlands
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5
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Lazzarin M, Meisenburg M, Meijer D, van Ieperen W, Marcelis LFM, Kappers IF, van der Krol AR, van Loon JJA, Dicke M. LEDs Make It Resilient: Effects on Plant Growth and Defense. Trends Plant Sci 2021; 26:496-508. [PMID: 33358304 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Light spectral composition influences plant growth and metabolism, and has important consequences for interactions with plant-feeding arthropods and their natural enemies. In greenhouse horticulture, light spectral composition can be precisely manipulated by light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and LEDs are already used to optimize crop production and quality. However, because light quality also modulates plant secondary metabolism and defense, it is important to understand the underlying mechanisms in the context of the growth-defense trade-off. We review the effects of the spectral composition of supplemental light currently used, or potentially used, in greenhouse horticulture on the mechanisms underlying plant growth and defense. This information is important for exploring opportunities to optimize crop performance and pest management, and thus for developing resilient crop-production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lazzarin
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Meisenburg
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - D Meijer
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - W van Ieperen
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - L F M Marcelis
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - I F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - A R van der Krol
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - J J A van Loon
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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6
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Mouden S, Bac-Molenaar JA, Kappers IF, Beerling EAM, Leiss KA. Elicitor Application in Strawberry Results in Long-Term Increase of Plant Resilience Without Yield Loss. Front Plant Sci 2021; 12:695908. [PMID: 34276745 PMCID: PMC8282209 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.695908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
For a first step integrating elicitor applications into the current IPM strategy increasing plant resilience against pests, we investigated repeated elicitor treatments in a strawberry everbearer nursery and cropping cycle under glass. During nursery methyl-jasmonate (MeJA), testing induction of defenses with plant bioassays was applied every 3 weeks. Thrips damage and reproduction by spider mites, whitefly and aphids were strongly reduced upon elicitor treatment. Subsequently, we applied MeJA every 3 weeks or based on scouting pests during a whole cropping cycle. Thrips leaf bioassays and LC-MS leaf metabolomics were applied to investigate the induction of defenses. Leaf damage by thrips was lower for both MeJA application schemes compared to the control except for the last weeks. While elicitor treatments after scouting also reduced damage, its effect did not last. Thrips damage decreased from vegetative to mature plants during the cropping cycle. At the end of the nursery phase, plants in the elicitor treatment were smaller. Surprisingly, growth during production was not affected by MeJA application, as were fruit yield and quality. LC-MS leaf metabolomics showed strong induction of vegetative plants decreasing during the maturation of plants toward the end of cultivation. Concurrently, no increase in the JA-inducible marker PPO was observed when measured toward the end of cultivation. Mostly flavonoid and phenolic glycosides known as plant defense compounds were induced upon MeJA application. While induced defense decreased with the maturation of plants, constitutive defense increased as measured in the leaf metabolome of control plants. Our data propose that young, relatively small plant stages lack constitutive defense necessitating an active JA defense response. As plants, mature constitutive defense metabolites seem to accumulate, providing a higher level of basal resistance. Our results have important implications for but are not limited to strawberry cultivation. We demonstrated that repeated elicitor application could be deployed as part of an integrated approach for sustainable crop protection by vertical integration with other management tactics and horizontal integration to control multiple pests concurrently. This approach forms a promising potential for long-term crop protection in greenhouses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanae Mouden
- Plant Health Team, Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Plant Science Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Johanna A. Bac-Molenaar
- Plant Health Team, Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Plant Science Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Johanna A. Bac-Molenaar
| | - Iris F. Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Plant Science Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Ellen A. M. Beerling
- Plant Health Team, Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Plant Science Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Kirsten A. Leiss
- Plant Health Team, Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Plant Science Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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7
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Mouden S, Kappers IF, Klinkhamer PGL, Leiss KA. Cultivar Variation in Tomato Seed Coat Permeability Is an Important Determinant of Jasmonic Acid Elicited Defenses Against Western Flower Thrips. Front Plant Sci 2020; 11:576505. [PMID: 33262775 PMCID: PMC7686761 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.576505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Induction of defenses is one of the most widely accepted eco-friendly approaches for management of pests and diseases. Seeds are receptive to resistance-inducing chemicals and could offer broad-spectrum protection at the early stages of development. However, seed treatment with elicitors has previously been shown to differentially influence induced defense responses among cultivars and thus, could hamper commercial exploitation. In this context, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the genotype-dependent ability of jasmonic acid (JA) to induce resistance against western flower thrips (WFT) at the seed stage. We examined the variation in inducibility of resistance in eight commercial tomato cultivars. Causal factors accounting for discrepancies in JA-induced responses at the seed stage were phenotypically and biochemically evaluated. Seed receptivity to exogenous JA appeared to be cultivar dependent. Thrips associated silver damage was only reduced in JA seed-treated plants of cultivar Carousel. Enhancement of resistance, was not associated with activation of defense-related traits such as polyphenol oxidase activity (PPO), trichomes or volatiles. Sulfuric acid scarification, prior to JA seed incubation, significantly augmented the embryonic responsiveness to JA in cv. Moneymaker without an adverse effect on growth. Hence, these results support the hypothesis that seed coat permeability is a key factor for successfully inducing JA mediated thrips defenses. The outcome of our study is of translational value as it creates opportunities for the seed industry to perform pre-treatments on non-responsive cultivars as well as for tomato breeding programs to select for genetic traits that affect seed permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanae Mouden
- Plant Science and Natural Products, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
- Business Unit Horticulture, Wageningen University and Research, Bleiswijk, Netherlands
| | - Iris F. Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Peter G. L. Klinkhamer
- Plant Science and Natural Products, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Kirsten A. Leiss
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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He J, Bouwmeester HJ, Dicke M, Kappers IF. Genome-Wide Analysis Reveals Transcription Factors Regulated by Spider-Mite Feeding in Cucumber ( Cucumis sativus). Plants (Basel) 2020; 9:E1014. [PMID: 32796676 PMCID: PMC7465836 DOI: 10.3390/plants9081014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To gain insight into the regulatory networks that underlie the induced defense in cucumber against spider mites, genes encoding transcription factors (TFs) were identified in the cucumber (Cucumissativus) genome and their regulation by two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychusurticae) herbivory was analyzed using RNA-seq. Of the total 1212 annotated TF genes in the cucumber genome, 119 were differentially regulated upon spider-mite herbivory during a period of 3 days. These TF genes belong to different categories but the MYB, bHLH, AP2/ERF and WRKY families had the highest relative numbers of differentially expressed genes. Correlation analysis of the expression of TF genes with defense-associated genes during herbivory and pathogen infestation, and in different organs resulted in the putative identification of regulators of herbivore-induced terpenoid and green-leaf-volatile biosynthesis. Analysis of the cis-acting regulatory elements (CAREs) present in the promoter regions of the genes responsive to spider-mite feeding revealed potential TF regulators. This study describes the TF genes in cucumber that are potentially involved in the regulation of induced defense against herbivory by spider mites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun He
- Citrus Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400712, China
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Harro J. Bouwmeester
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
- Plant Hormone Biology Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1000 BE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Iris F. Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
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He J, Bouwmeester HJ, Dicke M, Kappers IF. Transcriptional and metabolite analysis reveal a shift in direct and indirect defences in response to spider-mite infestation in cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Plant Mol Biol 2020; 103:489-505. [PMID: 32306368 PMCID: PMC7299927 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-020-01005-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE Cucumber plants adapt their transcriptome and metabolome as result of spider mite infestation with opposite consequences for direct and indirect defences in two genotypes. Plants respond to arthropod attack with the rearrangement of their transcriptome which lead to subsequent phenotypic changes in the plants' metabolome. Here, we analysed transcriptomic and metabolite responses of two cucumber (Cucumis sativus) genotypes to chelicerate spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) during the first 3 days of infestation. Genes associated with the metabolism of jasmonates, phenylpropanoids, terpenoids and L-phenylalanine were most strongly upregulated. Also, genes involved in the biosynthesis of precursors for indirect defence-related terpenoids were upregulated while those involved in the biosynthesis of direct defence-related cucurbitacin C were downregulated. Consistent with the observed transcriptional changes, terpenoid emission increased and cucurbitacin C content decreased during early spider-mite herbivory. To further study the regulatory network that underlies induced defence to spider mites, differentially expressed genes that encode transcription factors (TFs) were analysed. Correlation analysis of the expression of TF genes with metabolism-associated genes resulted in putative identification of regulators of herbivore-induced terpenoid, green-leaf volatiles and cucurbitacin biosynthesis. Our data provide a global image of the transcriptional changes in cucumber leaves in response to spider-mite herbivory and that of metabolites that are potentially involved in the regulation of induced direct and indirect defences against spider-mite herbivory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun He
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Harro J Bouwmeester
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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He J, Bouwmeester HJ, Dicke M, Kappers IF. Correction to: Transcriptional and metabolite analysis reveal a shift in direct and indirect defences in response to spider‑mite infestation in cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Plant Mol Biol 2020; 103:507-509. [PMID: 32350663 PMCID: PMC7645467 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-020-01009-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In the above mentioned publication, part of Fig. 1b was distorted (48 h after TSSM Infestation). The original article has been corrected and the proper version of Fig. 1 is also published here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun He
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Harro J Bouwmeester
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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11
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Zhang Y, Bouwmeester HJ, Kappers IF. Combined transcriptome and metabolome analysis identifies defence responses in spider mite-infested pepper (Capsicum annuum). J Exp Bot 2020; 71:330-343. [PMID: 31557301 PMCID: PMC6913709 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Plants regulate responses towards herbivory through fine-tuning of defence-related hormone production, expression of defence genes, and production of secondary metabolites. Jasmonic acid (JA) plays a key role in plant-herbivorous arthropod interactions. To understand how pepper (Capsicum annuum) responds to herbivory, leaf transcriptomes and metabolomes of two genotypes different in their susceptibility to spider mites were studied. Mites induced both JA and salicylic acid (SA) signalling. However, mite infestation and exogenous JA resulted in distinct transcriptome profiles. Compared with JA, mites induced fewer differentially expressed genes involved in metabolic processes (except for genes involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway) and lipid metabolic processes. Furthermore, pathogen-related defence responses including WRKY transcription factors were more strongly induced upon mite infestation, probably as a result of induced SA signalling. Untargeted analysis of secondary metabolites confirmed that JA treatment induced larger changes in metabolism than spider mite infestation, resulting in higher terpenoid and flavonoid production. The more resistant genotype exhibited a larger increase in endogenous JA and volatile and non-volatile secondary metabolites upon infestation, which could explain its stronger defence. Reasoning that in JA-SA antagonizing crosstalk, SA defences are prioritized over JA defences, we hypothesize that lack of SA-mediated repression of JA-induced defences could result in gain of resistance towards spider mites in pepper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Zhang
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Harro J Bouwmeester
- Plant Hormone Biology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
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12
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Zhang Y, Bouwmeester HJ, Kappers IF. Combined transcriptome and metabolome analysis identifies defence responses in spider mite-infested pepper (Capsicum annuum). J Exp Bot 2020. [PMID: 31557301 DOI: 10.5061/dryad.n34h180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Plants regulate responses towards herbivory through fine-tuning of defence-related hormone production, expression of defence genes, and production of secondary metabolites. Jasmonic acid (JA) plays a key role in plant-herbivorous arthropod interactions. To understand how pepper (Capsicum annuum) responds to herbivory, leaf transcriptomes and metabolomes of two genotypes different in their susceptibility to spider mites were studied. Mites induced both JA and salicylic acid (SA) signalling. However, mite infestation and exogenous JA resulted in distinct transcriptome profiles. Compared with JA, mites induced fewer differentially expressed genes involved in metabolic processes (except for genes involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway) and lipid metabolic processes. Furthermore, pathogen-related defence responses including WRKY transcription factors were more strongly induced upon mite infestation, probably as a result of induced SA signalling. Untargeted analysis of secondary metabolites confirmed that JA treatment induced larger changes in metabolism than spider mite infestation, resulting in higher terpenoid and flavonoid production. The more resistant genotype exhibited a larger increase in endogenous JA and volatile and non-volatile secondary metabolites upon infestation, which could explain its stronger defence. Reasoning that in JA-SA antagonizing crosstalk, SA defences are prioritized over JA defences, we hypothesize that lack of SA-mediated repression of JA-induced defences could result in gain of resistance towards spider mites in pepper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Zhang
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Harro J Bouwmeester
- Plant Hormone Biology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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13
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Macel M, Visschers IGS, Peters JL, Kappers IF, de Vos RCH, van Dam NM. Metabolomics of Thrips Resistance in Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Reveals Monomer and Dimer Acyclic Diterpene Glycosides as Potential Chemical Defenses. J Chem Ecol 2019; 45:490-501. [PMID: 31175497 PMCID: PMC6570690 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-019-01074-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The development of pesticide resistance in insects and recent bans on pesticides call for the identification of natural sources of resistance in crops. Here, we used natural variation in pepper (Capsicum spp.) resistance combined with an untargeted metabolomics approach to detect secondary metabolites related to thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) resistance. Using leaf disc choice assays, we tested 11 Capsicum accessions of C. annuum and C. chinense in both vegetative and flowering stages for thrips resistance. Metabolites in the leaves of these 11 accessions were analyzed using LC-MS based untargeted metabolomics. The choice assays showed significant differences among the accessions in thrips feeding damage. The level of resistance depended on plant developmental stage. Metabolomics analyses showed differences in metabolomes among the Capsicum species and plant developmental stages. Moreover, metabolomic profiles of resistant and susceptible accessions differed. Monomer and dimer acyclic diterpene glycosides (capsianosides) were pinpointed as metabolites that were related to thrips resistance. Sucrose and malonylated flavone glycosides were related to susceptibility. To our knowledge, this is the first time that dimer capsianosides of pepper have been linked to insect resistance. Our results show the potential of untargeted metabolomics as a tool for discovering metabolites that are important in plant - insect interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirka Macel
- Molecular Interaction Ecology, Institute of Water and Wetland Research (IWWR), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Isabella G S Visschers
- Molecular Interaction Ecology, Institute of Water and Wetland Research (IWWR), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Janny L Peters
- Molecular Plant Physiology, Institute of Water and Wetland Research (IWWR), Radboud University, P. O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 658, 6700 AR, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ric C H de Vos
- Wageningen Plant Research, Bioscience, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nicole M van Dam
- Molecular Interaction Ecology, Institute of Water and Wetland Research (IWWR), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Biodiversity, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger-Str. 159, 07743, Jena, Germany
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Houshyani B, Assareh M, Busquets A, Ferrer A, Bouwmeester HJ, Kappers IF. Three-step pathway engineering results in more incidence rate and higher emission of nerolidol and improved attraction of Diadegma semiclausum. Metab Eng 2013; 15:88-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Kappers IF, Hoogerbrugge H, Bouwmeester HJ, Dicke M. Variation in herbivory-induced volatiles among cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) varieties has consequences for the attraction of carnivorous natural enemies. J Chem Ecol 2011; 37:150-60. [PMID: 21249432 PMCID: PMC3043237 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-011-9906-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2010] [Revised: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
In response to herbivory by arthropods, plants emit herbivory-induced volatiles that attract carnivorous enemies of the inducing herbivores. Here, we compared the attractiveness of eight cucumber varieties (Cucumis sativus L.) to Phytoseiulus persimilis predatory mites after infestation of the plants with herbivorous spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) under greenhouse conditions. Attractiveness differed considerably, with the most attractive variety attracting twice as many predators as the least attractive variety. Chemical analysis of the volatiles released by the infested plants revealed significant differences among varieties, both in quantity and quality of the emitted blends. Comparison of the attractiveness of the varieties with the amounts of volatiles emitted indicated that the quality (composition) of the blend is more important for attraction than the amount of volatiles emitted. The amount of (E)-β-ocimene, (E,E)-TMTT, and two other, yet unidentified compounds correlated positively with the attraction of predatory mites. Quantities of four compounds negatively correlated with carnivore attraction, among them methyl salicylate, which is known to attract the predatory mite P. persimilis. The emission of methyl salicylate correlated with an unknown compound that had a negative correlation with carnivore attraction and hence could be masking the attractiveness of methyl salicylate. The results imply that the foraging success of natural enemies of pests can be enhanced by breeding for crop varieties that release specific volatiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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16
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Jansen RMC, Wildt J, Kappers IF, Bouwmeester HJ, Hofstee JW, van Henten EJ. Detection of diseased plants by analysis of volatile organic compound emission. Annu Rev Phytopathol 2011; 49:157-74. [PMID: 21663436 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the detection of diseased plants by analysis of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. It includes an overview of studies that report on the impact of infectious and noninfectious diseases on these emissions and discusses the specificity of disease-induced emissions. The review also provides an overview of processes that affect the gas balance of plant volatiles, including their loss processes. These processes are considered as important because they contribute to the time-dynamic concentration profiles of plant-emitted volatiles. In addition, we describe the most popular techniques currently in use to measure volatiles emitted from plants, with emphasis on agricultural application. Dynamic sampling coupled with gas chromatography and followed by an appropriate detector is considered as the most appropriate method for application in agriculture. It is recommended to evaluate the state-of-the-art in the fields concerned with this method and to explore the development of a new instrument based on the specific needs for application in agricultural practice. However, to apply such an instrument in agriculture remains a challenge, mainly due to high costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M C Jansen
- Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Snoeren TAL, Kappers IF, Broekgaarden C, Mumm R, Dicke M, Bouwmeester HJ. Natural variation in herbivore-induced volatiles in Arabidopsis thaliana. J Exp Bot 2010; 61:3041-56. [PMID: 20488836 PMCID: PMC2892144 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erq127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2010] [Revised: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
To study whether natural variation in Arabidopsis thaliana could be used to dissect the genetic basis of responses to herbivory in terms of induced volatile emissions, nine accessions were characterized upon herbivory by biting-chewing Pieris rapae caterpillars or after treatment with the phytohormone jasmonic acid (JA). Analysis of 73 compounds in the headspace showed quantitative differences in the emission rates of several individual compounds among the accessions. Moreover, variation in the emission of volatile compounds after JA treatment was reflected in the behaviour of the parasitoid Diadegma semiclausum when they were offered the headspace volatiles of several combinations of accessions in two-choice experiments. Accessions also differ in transcript levels of genes that are associated with the emission of plant volatiles. The genes BSMT1 and Cyp72A13 could be connected to the emission of methyl salicylate and (E,E)-4,8,12-trimethyltrideca-1,3,7,11-tetraene (TMTT), respectively. Overall, Arabidopsis showed interesting phenotypic variations with respect to the volatile blend emitted in response to herbivory that can be exploited to identify genes and alleles that underlie this important plant trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tjeerd A L Snoeren
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, EH Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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18
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Kappers IF, Verstappen FWA, Luckerhoff LLP, Bouwmeester HJ, Dicke M. Genetic variation in jasmonic acid- and spider mite-induced plant volatile emission of cucumber accessions and attraction of the predator Phytoseiulus persimilis. J Chem Ecol 2010; 36:500-12. [PMID: 20383796 PMCID: PMC2866305 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-010-9782-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus L.) respond to spider-mite (Tetranychus urticae) damage with the release of specific volatiles that are exploited by predatory mites, the natural enemies of the spider mites, to locate their prey. The production of volatiles also can be induced by exposing plants to the plant hormone jasmonic acid. We analyzed volatile emissions from 15 cucumber accessions upon herbivory by spider mites and upon exposure to jasmonic acid using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Upon induction, cucumber plants emitted over 24 different compounds, and the blend of induced volatiles consisted predominantly of terpenoids. The total amount of volatiles was higher in plants treated with jasmonic acid than in those infested with spider mites, with (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene, (E,E)-alpha-farnesene, and (E)-beta-ocimene as the most abundant compounds in all accessions in both treatments. Significant variation among the accessions was found for the 24 major volatile compounds. The accessions differed strongly in total amount of volatiles emitted, and displayed very different odor profiles. Principal component analysis performed on the relative quantities of particular compounds within the blend revealed clusters of highly correlated volatiles, which is suggestive of common metabolic pathways. A number of cucumber accessions also were tested for their attractiveness to Phytoseiulus persimilis, a specialist predator of spider mites. Differences in the attraction of predatory mites by the various accessions correlated to differences in the individual chemical profiles of these accessions. The presence of genetic variation in induced plant volatile emission in cucumber shows that it is possible to breed for cucumber varieties that are more attractive to predatory mites and other biological control agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research Centre Wageningen, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Kappers IF, Aharoni A, van Herpen TWJM, Luckerhoff LLP, Dicke M, Bouwmeester HJ. Genetic Engineering of Terpenoid Metabolism Attracts Bodyguards to Arabidopsis. Science 2005; 309:2070-2. [PMID: 16179482 DOI: 10.1126/science.1116232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Herbivore-damaged plants release complex mixtures of volatiles that attract natural enemies of the herbivore. To study the relevance of individual components of these mixtures for predator attraction, we manipulated herbivory-induced volatiles through genetic engineering. Metabolic engineering of terpenoids, which dominate the composition of many induced plant volatile bouquets, holds particular promise. By switching the subcellular localization of the introduced sesquiterpene synthase to the mitochondria, we obtained transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants emitting two new isoprenoids. These altered plants attracted carnivorous predatory mites (Phytoseiulus persimilis) that aid the plants' defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Post Office Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen, Netherlands
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Mercke P, Kappers IF, Verstappen FWA, Vorst O, Dicke M, Bouwmeester HJ. Combined transcript and metabolite analysis reveals genes involved in spider mite induced volatile formation in cucumber plants. Plant Physiol 2004; 135:2012-24. [PMID: 15310834 PMCID: PMC520772 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.048116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2004] [Revised: 06/25/2004] [Accepted: 06/27/2004] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Many plants have an indirect defense against herbivores by emitting volatiles that attract carnivorous enemies of the herbivores. In cucumber (Cucumis sativus) the production of carnivore attractants can be induced by herbivory or jasmonic acid spraying. From the leaves of cucumber plants with and without spider mite infestation, two subtractive cDNA libraries were made that were enriched in cDNA fragments up- or down-regulated by spider mite infestation. A total of 713 randomly selected clones from these libraries were used to make a cDNA microarray. Subsequently, cucumber plants were sprayed with jasmonic acid, mechanically damaged, infested with spider mites, or left untreated (control). Leaf samples were taken at a range of different time points, and induced volatile compounds and mRNA (from the same leaves) were collected. cDNAs prepared from the mRNA were hybridized to the clones on the microarray. The resulting gene expression profiles were analyzed in combination with volatile production data in order to gain insight in the possible involvement of the studied genes in the synthesis of those volatiles. The clones on the microarray and the induced cucumber volatiles could be grouped into a number of clusters in which specific biosynthetic genes clustered with the product of that pathway. For example, lipoxygenase cDNA clones clustered with the volatile (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and the volatile sesquiterpene (E,E)- alpha-farnesene clustered with an up-regulated sesquiterpene synthase fragment. This fragment was used to screen a cDNA library which resulted in the cloning of the cucumber (E,E)-alpha-farnesene and (E)-beta-caryophyllene synthases. The use of combined global gene expression analysis and metabolite analysis for the discovery of genes involved in specific biosynthetic processes is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Mercke
- Plant Research International, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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