Ultrasound speed in red deer antlers: a non–invasive correlate of density and a potential index of relative qualit

Deer antlers can be used as an index of individual performance both in ecological and productive contexts. Their quality is often measured only by their biometrical features, such as size, asymmetry or weight. Mechanic characteristics cannot normally be measured without destroying the antler and hence losing the commercial value of the trophies. Here, we studied ultrasonic velocities, density, and tensile strength across various sections of cast antlers of Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus). We found that the speed value depended on the section of the antler and the propagation direction. For antler sections, velocities were lowest for mid–beam and highest for brow tine. Results were similar for density and indirect tensile strength, probably related to differences in functionality among antler sections. Density explained most of the variability of ultrasound–speed. The time elapsed from antler shed affected density more than ultrasound speed. The indirect tensile strength showed a non–linear, decelerating relationship with ultrasound speed. We discuss the applications of ultrasound speed as a non–invasive tool to measure density and physical properties of antlers and antler sections, and their potential use as an index of quality.

Wear Fast, Die Young: More Worn Teeth and Shorter Lives in Iberian Compared to Scottish Red Deer

Teeth in Cervidae are permanent structures that are not replaceable or repairable; consequently their rate of wear, due to the grinding effect of food and dental attrition, affects their duration and can determine an animal's lifespan. Tooth wear is also a useful indicator of accumulative life energy investment in intake and mastication and their interactions with diet. Little is known regarding how natural and sexual selection operate on dental structures within a species in contrasting environments and how these relate to life history traits to explain differences in population rates of tooth wear and longevity. We hypothesised that populations under harsh environmental conditions should be selected for more hypsodont teeth while sexual selection may maintain similar sex differences within different populations. We investigated the patterns of tooth wear in males and females of Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in Southern Spain and Scottish red deer (C. e. scoticus) across Scotland, that occur in very different environments, using 10343 samples from legal hunting activities. We found higher rates of both incisor and molar wear in the Spanish compared to Scottish populations. However, Scottish red deer had larger incisors at emergence than Iberian red deer, whilst molars emerged at a similar size in both populations and sexes. Iberian and Scottish males had earlier tooth depletion than females, in support of a similar sexual selection process in both populations. However, whilst average lifespan for Iberian males was 4 years shorter than that for Iberian females and Scottish males, Scottish males only showed a reduction of 1 year in average lifespan with respect to Scottish females. More worn molars were associated with larger mandibles in both populations, suggesting that higher intake and/or greater investment in food comminution may have favoured increased body growth, before later loss of tooth efficiency due to severe wear. These results illustrate how independent selection in both subspecies, that diverged 11,700 years BP, has resulted in the evolution of different longevity, although sexual selection has maintained a similar pattern of relative sex differences in tooth depletion. This study opens interesting questions on optimal allocation in life history trade-offs and the independent evolution of allopatric populations.

Influence of porcine circovirus type 2 infections on bovine tuberculosis in wild boar populations

The wild boar is an important reservoir of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in south-western Spain. Some risk factors such as wild boar density or age have been associated with the presence of high prevalences of bTB in wild boar. However, the influence of other risk factors such as co-infections with other pathogens has not yet been studied. This work aims to assess the influence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) infection on bTB prevalence and bTB lesional patterns observed in wild boar. The presence of bTB-like lesions was evaluated in 551 hunted wild boar from 11 different game estates in south-western Spain, with a known history of bTB. Tuberculosis prevalences in each estate were calculated based on the percentage of animals found with bTB-like lesions. The percentage of animals with generalized bTB lesional patterns (bTB lesions in more than one organ) was also assessed. The prevalence of PCV-2 was studied in each estate using a specific PCR assay. The relationship between PCV-2 and bTB prevalences and between PCV-2 infections and the presence of generalized lesional patterns in wild boar were analysed. A statistical relationship between the prevalences of bTB and PCV-2 was found, with bTB prevalences being higher in estates where prevalences of PCV-2 were high. On the other hand, animals infected with PCV-2 were more likely to develop a generalized lesional pattern. Porcine circovirus type 2 prevalences seem to be associated with prevalences of bTB in wild boar. PCV-2 infection may aggravate the development and severity of bTB, favouring the presence of generalized lesional patterns and raising the risk of contagion in these estates. The implementation of sanitary measures that focus on the control of PCV-2 infection may be necessary as a preliminary measure in bTB control programmes for wild boar.

Non-tuberculous mycobacteria in wild boar (Sus scrofa) from Southern Spain: epidemiological, clinical and diagnostic concerns

Non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are widely distributed in the environment, particularly in wet soil, marshland, rivers or streams, but also are causative agents of a wide variety of infections in animals and humans. Little information is available regarding the NTM prevalence in wildlife and their effects or significance in the bovine tuberculosis (bTB) epidemiology and diagnosis. This research shows the most frequently NTM isolated in lymph nodes of wild boar (Sus scrofa) from southern Spain, relating the NTM presence with the individual characteristics, the management of animals and the possible misdiagnosis of Mycobacterium bovis in concurrent infections. A total of 219 NTM isolates were obtained from 1249 wild boar mandibular lymph nodes sampled between 2007 and 2011. All but 75 isolates were identified by the PCR-restriction analysis-hsp65, and a partial sequencing of the 16S rDNA was carried out to identify the rest of the isolates. Results showed that Mycobacterium chelonae was the most frequently isolated NTM specie (133 isolates, 60.7%), followed by Mycobacterium avium (24 isolates, 11%). No relation was found regarding sex, body condition and management, but M. chelonae was more frequently detected in adults, whereas M. avium was more prevalent in subadults. The high NTM prevalence observed in the studied wild boar populations could make difficult the bTB diagnostic.

Management practices and their association with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex prevalence in red deer populations in Southwestern Spain

Intensification of game management may increase the prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) in wildlife despite eradication programs implemented in cattle herds in the same areas. In this cross-sectional study, we investigated the association between wild game management practices and the presence of tuberculosis in red deer populations in Southwestern Spain. Five hundred and fifty-one animals were examined by necropsy to detect tuberculosis-like lesions in the main lymph nodes. Prevalence, as determined by TB-like lesions, was estimated to be 5.1% of animals, with 77% of TB-like lesions confirmed by PCR. Our results suggest that population density, in addition to factors which promote the local aggregation of animals, is factors associated with increased prevalence of TB in red deer populations. We suggest that management practices including supplementary feeding, fencing, water ponds and interaction with domestic livestock should be revised in order to prevent TB in wild deer both.

Parents' genetic dissimilarity and offspring sex in a polygynous mammal

Offspring quality may benefit from genetic dissimilarity between parents. However, genetic dissimilarity may trade-off with additive genetic benefits. We hypothesized that when sexual selection produces sex-specific selective scenarios, the relative benefits of additive genetic vs. dissimilarity may differ for sons and daughters. Here we study a sample of 666 red deer (Cervus elaphus) microsatellite genotypes, including males, females and their foetuses, from 20 wild populations in Spain (the main analyses are based on 241 different foetuses and 190 mother-foetus pairs). We found that parental lineages were more dissimilar in daughters than in sons. On average, every mother was less related to her mate than to the sample of fathers in the population when producing daughters not sons. Male foetuses conceived early in the rutting season were much more inbred than any other foetuses. These differences maintained through gestation length, ruling out intrauterine mortality as a cause for the results, and indicating that the potential mechanism producing the association between parents' dissimilarity and offspring sex should operate close to mating or conception time. Our findings highlight the relevance of considering the sex of offspring when studying genetic similarity between parents.

Female-biased dispersal under conditions of low male mating competition in a polygynous mammal

Sex-biased dispersal is a common phenomenon in birds and mammals. Competition for mates has been argued to be an important selective pressure favouring dispersal. Sexual differences in the level of intrasexual competition may produce asymmetries in the costs-benefits balance of dispersal and philopatry for males and females, which may favour male-biased dispersal in polygynous species such as most mammals. This being the case, condition-dependent dispersal predicts that male-bias should decrease if mating competition relaxes. We test this expectation for red deer, where male-biased dispersal is the norm. In southwestern Spain, red deer populations located in nonfenced hunting estates presented altered structures with sex ratio strongly biased to females and high proportion of young males. As a consequence, mate competition in these populations was lower than in other, most typical red deer populations. We found that, under such conditions of altered population structure, dispersal was female-biased rather than male-biased. Additionally, mate competition positively related to male dispersal but negatively to female dispersal. Other factors such as resource competition, age of individuals and sex ratio were not related to male or female dispersal. Males may not disperse if intrasexual competition is low and then females may disperse as a response to male philopatry. We propose hypotheses related to female mate choice to explain female dispersal under male philopatry. The shift of the sex-biased dispersal pattern along the gradient of mate competition highlights its condition-dependence as well as the interaction between male and female dispersal in the evolution of sex-biased dispersal.

Isolation of Mycoplasma synoviae from the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa)

Following an outbreak of respiratory disease in a group of red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) and chickens (Gallus domesticus) housed in the same unit, a mycoplasma was isolated. Its biochemical profile and the growth-inhibition test enabled it to be identified as Mycoplasma synoviae. Histopathological analysis revealed an intense inflammatory reaction in the respiratory tract, together with epithelial hyperplasia and lymphocyte infiltration. The rapid serum plate agglutination test, and the haemagglutination-inhibition test, revealed the presence of humoral antibodies to Mycoplasma synoviae in the partridges studied.

Phylogeography of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations: the effects of historical genetic subdivisions and recent nonequilibrium dynamics

We sequenced 704 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control-region nucleotides and genotyped 11 autosomal microsatellites (STR) in 617 European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) samples, aiming to infer the species' phylogeographical structure. The mtDNA sequences were split in three distinct haplogroups, respectively, named: Clade West, sampled mainly in Iberia; Clade East, sampled mainly in Greece and in the Balkans; and Clade Central, which was widespread throughout Europe, including the eastern countries and Iberia, but not Greece. These clades might have originated in distinct Iberian and Balkanic refuges during the penultimate or the last glaciations. Clades East and West contributed little to the current postglacial mtDNA diversity in central Europe, which apparently was recolonized mainly by haplotypes belonging to Clade Central. A unique subclade within Clade Central grouped all the haplotypes sampled from populations of the Italian subspecies C. c. italicus. In contrast, haplotypes sampled in central and southern Spain joined both Clade Central and Clade West, suggesting that subspecies C. c. garganta has admixed origin. STR data support a genetic distinction of peripheral populations in north Iberia and southern Italy, and show the effects of anthropogenic disturbance in fragmented populations, which were recently reintroduced or restocked and not may be in mutation-drift equilibrium. Roe deer in central Europe are mainly admixed, while peripheral populations in north Portugal, the southern Italian Apennines and Greece represent the remains of refugial populations and should be managed accordingly.

Candesartan cilexetil is not associated with cough in hypertensive patients with enalapril-induced cough. Multicentre Cough Study Group

The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of dry cough during treatment with candesartan cilexetil, enalapril, or placebo in patients with hypertension and a history of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitor-related cough. Patients with confirmed cough during an enalapril (10 mg) challenge period, followed by no cough during a placebo dechallenge period were randomized to 8 weeks of double-blind treatment with candesartan cilexetil (8 mg) (n = 62), enalapril (10 mg) (n = 66), or placebo (n = 26). Incidence and severity of dry cough was evaluated by the symptom assessment questionnaire, frequency of dry cough by a visual analog scale, and the possible impact on quality of life by the minor symptom evaluation (MSE) profile. The percentage of patients with cough was significantly lower with candesartan cilexetil (35.5%) than with enalapril (68.2%, P < .001), and did not differ between candesartan cilexetil and placebo (26.9%, P > .20). Patients coughed less frequently and with less severe cough with candesartan cilexetil than with enalapril, and similarly with candesartan cilexetil and placebo. Changes in the MSE profile were minor, although candesartan cilexetil had better scores for contentment than placebo (P = .03), and also tended to be associated with better sleep than enalapril (P = .08). In hypertensive patients with ACE-inhibitor-induced cough, the incidence, frequency, and severity of dry cough was significantly lower with candesartan cilexetil than with enalapril, and no different from that found with placebo.

Candesartan Cilexetil is not Associated with Cough in Patients with Enalapril-induced Cough

Treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors is frequently associated with persistent dry cough. This side effect is thought to be due to the non-specific action of ACE inhibitors, which, in addition to suppressing the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), leads to the accumulation of kinins, encephalins and other biologically active peptides. Candesartan cilexetil is a new, long-acting angiotensin II type 1 (AT 1 ) receptor blocker, which offers a more specific means of suppressing the RAS than can be achieved with ACE inhibitors. In this study, we compared the incidence and severity of cough during treatment with candesartan cilexetil, enalapril and placebo in patients with hypertension and enalapril-induced cough. Men and women, aged 20-80 years, with a history of medically treated primary hypertension and ACE-inhibitor-related cough were enrolled. The presence of cough was confirmed during a 4-week challenge period with enalapril, 10 mg, which abated during a subsequent 4-week washout period with placebo. Patients with confirmed ACE-inhibitor-related cough were then randomized to double-blind treatment with candesartan cilexetil, 8 mg once daily ( n = 62), enalapril, 10 mg once daily ( n = 66), or placebo ( n = 26). Baseline blood pressure was similar in all groups. Although blood pressure was recorded during the study, this was for safety monitoring, and the measurements were not standardized in relation to study drug intake or time of day. The frequency of dry cough was recorded on a visual analogue scale (VAS). For each assessment, patients marked a cross on a straight horizontal 100 mm line, rating cough frequency from 'none of the time( at one end of the line to 'all of the time( at the other end. The impact of treatment on quality of life was also studied, using the Symptom Assessment (SA) questionnaire and the Minor Symptom Evaluation (MSE) profile. The SA questionnaire assessed the severity of nine symptoms, including dry cough, by means of a five-graded Likert scale (not at all, a little, moderately, quite a bit, extremely). Changes in the three dimensions of the MSE profile - contentment, vitality and sleep - were recorded using a VAS. Candesartan cilexetil was superior to enalapril regarding the change in frequency ( p = 0.001) and severity ( p < 0.001) of dry cough. After 8 weeks of treatment, the proportions of patients with cough were 26.9% for placebo, 35.5% for candesartan cilexetil and 68.2% for enalapril ( p < 0.001, candesartan cilexetil versus enalapril; p > 0.20, candesartan cilexetil versus placebo). Treatment with candesartan cilexetil did not compromise patients' well-being. Compared with placebo, candesartan cilexetil was superior in terms of its effect on contentment; similar trends were noted for vitality and sleep, although the differences were not significant. When all adverse events were considered, candesartan cilexetil was very well tolerated. No serious adverse events occurred in the candesartan cilexetil or placebo groups, while three patients in the enalapril group reported serious adverse events (chest pain, agranulocytosis, accidental fracture). No treatment-related changes of clinical relevance could be found with regard to laboratory variables, ECG or vital signs/physical findings, except the anticipated blood pressure reduction in the active treatment groups. In conclusion, candesartan cilexetil is not associated with cough in hypertensive patients with previous ACE-inhibitor-induced cough. The incidence of dry cough in patients treated with candesartan cilexetil was similar to that of placebo and lower than that of enalapril.

Sex allocation in a polygynous mammal with large litters: the wild boar

Predictions from Trivers & Willard's (1973, Science, 179, 90-92) hypothesis of sex-biased maternal investment in polygynous species do not apply well to species where mothers produce more than one offspring per reproductive attempt. First, as litter size increases, the benefits to the mother of adjusting sex ratio decrease because (1) she could benefit more by adjusting litter size and (2) sex differences in reproductive potential are negatively related to litter size. Second, testing sex-biased investment in these species requires predictions about the simultaneous adjustment of sex ratio and litter size. The wild boar, Sus scrofa, although polygynous, produces large litters. Here we present data for 58 litters from a free-ranging wild boar population in central Spain. Maternal expenditure per individual offspring, as measured by piglet weight, was higher for male than female fetuses. In more than 81% of cases the heaviest fetus in the litter was a male regardless of the quality of the mother; this might have influenced his ranking within the 'teat order' and consequently his development and survival. Mother quality (size and weight) appeared to be related to litter size but not to the sex ratio of the litter. However, it was highly related to a variable that combined the effects of litter size and sex ratio within the litter, thus supporting Williams' (1979, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 205, 567-580) hypothesis that mothers should adjust both litter size and offspring sex. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

The role of bright plumage in male-male interactions in the ring-necked pheasant

The brightness and colour of birds' plumages have been considered sexually selected traits, indicating health, condition or parasite resistance. However, recent studies with pheasants, Phasianus colchicussuggest they are not signals used by females in mate choice. Instead, males might rely on plumage when assessing the quality of competitors. In this study, bright and experimentally dulled males were presented to a group of captive male pheasants to determine the response to differences in plumage brightness of the intruder. Males in the group directed more aggression to the experimentally dulled males than they did to any other males. This may be partly because they considered the dull males as novel males. When the bright and the dull males were both unknown, both still received more aggression than the average for any individual in the group, but dull males were attacked by more males. Bright males were attacked more by the dominants and dull males by the subordinates. The results show that plumage brightness may affect individual recognition, but also that it is used by males to assess the quality of competitors. Male-male interactions, therefore, may have played a role in the evolution of plumage brightness, either in the context of competition for mates or for resources when males gather into unisexual groups.Copyright 1997 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour1997The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour

[Pathogenicity of Phylloporia chrysita (Aphyllophorales: Hymenochaetaceae) on Erythrochiton gymnanthus (Rutaceae)]

The pathogenicity of Phylloporia chrysita (Berk.) Ryv. on Erythrochiton gymnanthus K. (Rutaceae) was studied in Carara Biological Reserve, seasonal Pacific of Costa Rica. Growth rate and distribution of basidiocarps were determined on health and diseased plants. P. chrysita caused 52% growth reduction on diseased plants. Fungal hyphae were observed on epidermis, parenchyma and vascular tissue, where they caused cellular breakdown.

[Effects of avocado on the level of blood lipids in patients with phenotype II and IV dyslipidemias]

To examine the effects of avocado on plasma lipid concentrations a two-diet trial involving 8 phenotype IV and 8 phenotype II dyslipidemia patients was carried out. A diet rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (DRCA) using the avocado as their major source (30% of the total calories were consumed as fat, 75% of the total fat from the avocado), with restriction of saturated fat and less of 300 mg of cholesterol per day was evaluated. Patients also were in a low-saturated fat diet without avocado (DRSA). The three daily meals were eaten at our clinical unit. Diets were four weeks in duration and they were assigned in a crossover design. In phenotype II both DRCA and DRSA significantly reduced total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels. On phenotype IV DRCA produced a mild reduction on triglyceride levels while DRSA increased them. On HDL-cholesterol concentrations DRCA produced a significant increase in both phenotypes while DRSA did it only in phenotype IV. Avocado is an excellent source of monounsaturated fatty acids in diets designed to treat hypercholesterolemia with some advantages over low-fat diets with a greater amount of carbohydrates.

Hemorrhagic enteritis by adenovirus-like particles in turkeys: a possible pathogenic mechanism

This paper describes an outbreak of hemorrhagic enteritis due to adenovirus in turkeys in Spain. Diagnosis of the disease was confirmed by histopathological examination and the observation of adenovirus in spleen mononuclear cells and intestinal infiltrate. Evidence was also found of intravascular coagulation, which may give rise to the bleeding considered characteristic of this disease.

Immunohistochemical demonstration of Mycoplasma gallinarum and Mycoplasma gallinaceum in naturally infected hen oviducts

Using indirect immunoperoxidase (IIP), peroxidase anti-peroxidase (PAP) and avidin biotin-peroxidase complex (ABC) immunohistochemical methods, Mycoplasma gallinarum and M gallinaceum antigens were demonstrated in ethanol-fixed paraffin-embedded oviduct sections from hens the eggs from which showed suboptimal hatchability. Specific immunoperoxidase staining was detected at the mucosa in the magnum portion of the oviduct. Optimal staining was achieved by applying the ABC method, though both IIP and PAP methods can also be used for diagnosis. Isolation and identification techniques gave similar results for the species of avian mycoplasmas involved.

Influence of previous housing history on the toxicity of amphetamine in aggregate mice

The lethality of d-amphetamine was studied in isolated and aggregated mice with and without previous habituation to the physical or to the physical and social environment of chronically aggregated social condition under which the toxic effects of d-amphetamine were tested. In animals without previous habituation to such environments, d-amphetamine's toxicity was greatly enhanced by social aggregation, as reported by several authors in the literature. It was found that mortality in the dose range from 5 to 90 mg/kg is mainly determined by the stimulation due to aggregation. Above 90 mg/kg, the mortalities in single and aggregated mice vary in parallel. Up from this dose, lethality is independent of the external stimulation. Previous experience with house sharing in aggregated conditions reduces aggregation mortality in proportion to the duration of the previous house sharing period.

Immunohistological identification of both infectious bursal and Marek virus antigens in the bursa of Fabricius

Indirect Immunoperoxidase (IIP) and Avidin Biotin-Peroxidase Complex (ABC) techniques were used for the detection of Infectious Bursal Virus (IBV) and Marek Disease Virus (MDV) antigens in alcohol and formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded lymphoid tissues from broilers. Both techniques appeared potentially useful for the diagnosis of both viral antigens in alcohol-fixed tissues, and allowed the observation of dual infection in the bursa of Fabricius of the studied animals in a natural infection.

An outbreak of encephalitis in pigeons (Columba livia) in the Canary Islands (Spain)

An encephalitic disease in pigeons, characterized by paralysis of extremities, torticollis, head tremor, and diarrhea, is described. The negative titers in the hemagglutination tests, the presence of Feulgen-positive intranuclear inclusions in the cells of the granular layer of the cerebellum and the fibroblast culture, and the presence of viral particles with an icosahedral-herpetic morphology and a diameter of 100-170 nm all indicate that the etiology of this outbreak may be related to the encephalitis caused by herpesvirus, at present diagnosed only in Iraq and some African countries.

Bupropion: clinical assay for amphetamine-like abuse potential

Bupropion hydrochloride (100, 200, and 400 mg), d-amphetamine sulfate (15 and 30 mg), and placebo were compared in 13 volunteers who had histories of amphetamine abuse. Each dose was given orally at intervals of 3 or more days according to a double-blind, randomized crossover design. Bupropion had little or no effect on blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, body temperature, pupil diameter, subjective appetite, food intake, sleep, or selected subscales of the Addiction Research Center Inventory and Single Dose Questionnaire. Conversely, d-amphetamine was active on most measures. It is concluded that, despite bupropion's reinforcing properties in animals, the compound is not amphetamine-like and is unlikely to give rise to such abuse in humans.

Brain monoamine oxidase activity after in vivo-chronic iprindole treatment

The effects of chronic administration of three different doses of iprindole on the monoamine oxidase activity and neurotransmitter content were studied in the cerebral cortex, the mesencephalon and the cerebellum of mouse brain. The treatment inhibited mitochondrial monoamine oxidase activity of all three brain regions studied, although a dose-response inhibitory effect was found only in the mesencephalon. Brain regional serotonin contents were markedly increased after iprindole treatment. The 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid contents showed a significant decrease only in the cerebral cortex. Neither dopamine nor norepinephrine brain regional contents were significantly altered. On the basis of these results it is suggested that a substrate-specific inhibition of monoamine oxidase is involved in the mechanism of action of this tricyclic antidepressant.

Long term use and abuse of benzodiazepines

1. We have stressed the detrimental effect that lay publications, T. V. and mass media has had on the pharmacotherapy of anxiety and depressive reactions with benzodiazepines. 2. We have reviewed the scientific literature and found few well documented cases of benzodiazepine dependence if one considers that benzodiazepines are the most prescribed medications. 3. We discussed the possibility that the seizures reported on withdrawal of benzodiazepines used for very long periods, is not a "proof" of a physical dependence, but rather clinical evidence of the well known anticonvulsant effect of benzodiazepines. 4. We have hypothesized that the withdrawal syndromes associated to high dosages of benzodiazepines might have a different neurochemical mechanism to that observed in alcohol and barbiturates withdrawals.