Structural and chemical properties of anion exchanged CsPb(Br(1-x)Clx)3heterostructured perovskite nanowires imaged by nanofocused x-rays

Over the last years metal halide perovskites have demonstrated remarkable potential for integration in light emitting devices. Heterostructures allow for tunable bandgap depending on the local anion composition, crucial for optoelectronic devices, but local structural effects of anion exchange in single crystals is not fully understood. Here, we investigate how the anion exchange of CsPbBr3nanowires fully and locally exposed to HCl vapor affects the local crystal structure, using nanofocused x-rays. We study the nanoscale composition and crystal structure as function of HCl exposure time and demonstrate the correlation of anion exchange with changes in the lattice parameter. The local composition was measured by x-ray fluorescence and x-ray diffraction, with general agreement of both methods but with much less variation using latter. The heterostructured nanowires exhibit unintentional gradients in composition, both axially and radially. Ferroelastic domains are observed for all HCl exposure times, and the magnitude of the lattice tilt at the domain walls scales with the Cl concentration.

ForMAX - a beamline for multiscale and multimodal structural characterization of hierarchical materials

The ForMAX beamline at the MAX IV Laboratory provides multiscale and multimodal structural characterization of hierarchical materials in the nanometre to millimetre range by combining small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering with full-field microtomography. The modular design of the beamline is optimized for easy switching between different experimental modalities. The beamline has a special focus on the development of novel fibrous materials from forest resources, but it is also well suited for studies within, for example, food science and biomedical research.

Holographic imaging with a hard x-ray nanoprobe: ptychographic versus conventional phase retrieval

We have performed near-field x-ray imaging with simultaneous object and probe reconstruction. By an advanced ptychographic algorithm based on longitudinal and lateral translations, full-field images of nanoscale objects are reconstructed with quantitative contrast values, along with the extended wavefronts used to illuminate the objects. The imaging scheme makes idealizing assumptions on the probe obsolete, and efficiently disentangles phase shifts related to the object from the imperfections in the illumination. We validate this approach by comparison to the conventional reconstruction scheme without simultaneous probe retrieval, based on the contrast transfer function algorithm. To this end, a set of semiconductor nanowires with controlled chemical composition (InP core, insulating SiO₂ layer, and indium tin oxide cover) is imaged using the quasi-point source illumination realized by the hard x-ray nanofocus (26  nm×39  nm spot size) of the ID16A Nano-Imaging beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility.

Photon upconversion in degenerately sulfur doped InP nanowires

Radiative recombination in degenerately n-doped InP nanowires is studied for excitation above and below the Fermi energy of the electron gas, using photoluminescence. Laser-induced electron heating is observed, which allows absorption below the Fermi energy. We observe photon upconversion where photo-excited holes recombine with high |k| electrons. This can be attributed to hole scattering to high |k|-values, and the temperature dependence of this process is measured. We show that hole relaxation via phonon scattering can be observed in continuous wave excitation luminescence measurements.

High-flux ptychographic imaging using the new 55 µm-pixel detector `Lambda' based on the Medipix3 readout chip

Suitable detection systems that are capable of recording high photon count rates with single-photon detection are instrumental for coherent X-ray imaging. The new single-photon-counting pixel detector `Lambda' has been tested in a ptychographic imaging experiment on solar-cell nanowires using Kirkpatrick–Baez-focused 13.8 keV X-rays. Taking advantage of the high count rate of the Lambda and dynamic range expansion by the semi-transparent central stop, a high-dynamic-range diffraction signal covering more than seven orders of magnitude has been recorded, which corresponds to a photon flux density of about 105 photons nm−2 s−1or a flux of ∼1010 photons s−1on the sample. By comparison with data taken without the semi-transparent central stop, an increase in resolution by a factor of 3–4 is determined: from about 125 nm to about 38 nm for the nanowire and from about 83 nm to about 21 nm for the illuminating wavefield.

Structural investigation of GaInP nanowires using X-ray diffraction

In this work the structure of ternary Ga _x In_1 - x P nanowires is investigated with respect to the chemical composition and homogeneity. The nanowires were grown by metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy. For the investigation of ensemble fluctuations on several lateral length scales, X-ray diffraction reciprocal space maps have been analyzed. The data reveal a complicated varying materials composition across the sample and in the nanowires on the order of 20%. The use of modern synchrotron sources, where beam-sizes in the order of several 10 μm are available, enables us to investigate compositional gradients along the sample by recording diffraction patterns at different positions. In addition, compositional variations were found also within single nanowires in X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy measurements.

Particle-assisted Ga(x)In(1-x)P nanowire growth for designed bandgap structures

Non-tapered vertically straight Ga(x)In(1-x)P nanowires were grown in a compositional range from Ga(0.2)In(0.8)P to pure GaP in particle-assisted mode by controlling the trimethylindium, trimethylgallium and hydrogen chloride flows in metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy. X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy in transmission electron microscopy revealed homogeneous radial material composition in single nanowires, whereas variations in the material composition were found along the nanowires. High-resolution x-ray diffraction indicates a variation of the material composition on the order of about 19% measuring an entire sample area, i.e., including edge effects during growth. The non-capped nanowires emit room temperature photoluminescence strongly in the energy range of 1.43-2.16 eV, correlated with the bandgap expected from the material composition.

Unit cell parameters of wurtzite InP nanowires determined by x-ray diffraction

High resolution x-ray diffraction is used to study the structural properties of the wurtzite polytype of InP nanowires. Wurtzite InP nanowires are grown by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy using S-doping. From the evaluation of the Bragg peak position we determine the lattice parameters of the wurtzite InP nanowires. The unit cell dimensions are found to differ from the ones expected from geometric conversion of the cubic bulk InP lattice constant. The atomic distances along the c direction are increased whereas the atomic spacing in the a direction is reduced in comparison to the corresponding distances in the zinc-blende phase. Using core/shell nanowires with a thin core and thick nominally intrinsic shells we are able to determine the lattice parameters of wurtzite InP with a negligible influence of the S-doping due to the much larger volume in the shell. The determined material properties will enable the ab initio calculation of electronic and optical properties of wurtzite InP nanowires.

A novel cell force sensor for quantification of traction during cell spreading and contact guidance

In this work, we present a ridged, microfabricated, force sensor that can be used to investigate mechanical interactions between cells exhibiting contact guidance and the underlying cell culture substrate, and a proof-of-function evaluation of the force sensor performance. The substrates contain arrays of vertical pillars between solid ridges that were microfabricated in silicon wafers using photolithography and deep reactive ion etching. The spring constant of the pillars was measured by atomic force microscopy. For time-lapse experiments, cells were seeded on the pillared substrates and cultured in an on-stage incubator on a microscope equipped with reflected differential interference contrast optics. Endothelial cells (ECs) and fibroblasts were observed during attachment, spreading, and migration. Custom image analysis software was developed to resolve cell borders, cell alignment to the pillars and migration, displacements of individual pillars, and to quantify cell traction forces. Contact guidance classification was based on cell alignment and movement angles with respect to microfabricated ridges, as well as cell elongation. In initial investigations made with the ridged cell force sensor, we have observed contact guidance in ECs but not in fibroblast cells. A difference in maximal amplitude of mechanical forces was observed between a contact-guided and non-contact-guided, but mobile, EC. However, further experiments are required to determine the statistical significance of this observation. By chance, we observed another feature of cell behavior, namely a reversion of cell force direction. The direction of forces measured under rounded fibroblast cells changed from outwards during early cell attachment to inwards during further observation of the spreading phase. The range of forces measured under fibroblasts (up to 138 nN) was greater than that measured in EC (up to 57 nN), showing that the rigid silicon sensor is capable of resolving a large range of forces, and hence detection of differences in traction forces between cell types. These observations indicate proof-of-function of the ridged cell force sensor to induce contact guidance, and that the pillared cell force sensor constructed in rigid silicon has the necessary sensitivity to detect differences in traction force vectors between different cell phenotypes and morphologies.