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Liu H, Dowdle JA, Khurshid S, Sullivan NJ, Bertos N, Rambani K, Mair M, Daniel P, Wheeler E, Tang X, Toth K, Lause M, Harrigan ME, Eiring K, Sullivan C, Sullivan MJ, Chang SW, Srivastava S, Conway JS, Kladney R, McElroy J, Bae S, Lu Y, Tofigh A, Saleh SMI, Fernandez SA, Parvin JD, Coppola V, Macrae ER, Majumder S, Shapiro CL, Yee LD, Ramaswamy B, Hallett M, Ostrowski MC, Park M, Chamberlin HM, Leone G. Discovery of Stromal Regulatory Networks that Suppress Ras-Sensitized Epithelial Cell Proliferation. Dev Cell 2017; 41:392-407.e6. [PMID: 28535374 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2017.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Mesodermal cells signal to neighboring epithelial cells to modulate their proliferation in both normal and disease states. We adapted a Caenorhabditis elegans organogenesis model to enable a genome-wide mesodermal-specific RNAi screen and discovered 39 factors in mesodermal cells that suppress the proliferation of adjacent Ras pathway-sensitized epithelial cells. These candidates encode components of protein complexes and signaling pathways that converge on the control of chromatin dynamics, cytoplasmic polyadenylation, and translation. Stromal fibroblast-specific deletion of mouse orthologs of several candidates resulted in the hyper-proliferation of mammary gland epithelium. Furthermore, a 33-gene signature of human orthologs was selectively enriched in the tumor stroma of breast cancer patients, and depletion of these factors from normal human breast fibroblasts increased proliferation of co-cultured breast cancer cells. This cross-species approach identified unanticipated regulatory networks in mesodermal cells with growth-suppressive function, exposing the conserved and selective nature of mesodermal-epithelial communication in development and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huayang Liu
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - James A Dowdle
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Safiya Khurshid
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Nicholas J Sullivan
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Nicholas Bertos
- Department of Biochemistry, Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Komal Rambani
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Markus Mair
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Piotr Daniel
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Esther Wheeler
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Xing Tang
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Kyle Toth
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Michael Lause
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Markus E Harrigan
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Karl Eiring
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Connor Sullivan
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Matthew J Sullivan
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Serena W Chang
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Siddhant Srivastava
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Joseph S Conway
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Raleigh Kladney
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Joseph McElroy
- Center for Biostatistics, Office of Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; Department of Biomedical Informatics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Sooin Bae
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Yuanzhi Lu
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Ali Tofigh
- Department of Biochemistry, Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; McGill Centre for Bioinformatics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Sadiq M I Saleh
- Department of Biochemistry, Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; McGill Centre for Bioinformatics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Soledad A Fernandez
- Center for Biostatistics, Office of Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; Department of Biomedical Informatics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Jeffrey D Parvin
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Biomedical Informatics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Vincenzo Coppola
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Erin R Macrae
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Sarmila Majumder
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Charles L Shapiro
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Lisa D Yee
- Department of Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Bhuvaneswari Ramaswamy
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Michael Hallett
- Department of Biochemistry, Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; McGill Centre for Bioinformatics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Michael C Ostrowski
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Morag Park
- Department of Biochemistry, Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Helen M Chamberlin
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Gustavo Leone
- Solid Tumor Biology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada; Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Hollings Cancer Center 124J, 86 Jonathan Lucas Street, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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Kenney AD, Dowdle JA, Bozzacco L, McMichael TM, St Gelais C, Panfil AR, Sun Y, Schlesinger LS, Anderson MZ, Green PL, López CB, Rosenberg BR, Wu L, Yount JS. Human Genetic Determinants of Viral Diseases. Annu Rev Genet 2017; 51:241-263. [PMID: 28853921 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120116-023425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Much progress has been made in the identification of specific human gene variants that contribute to enhanced susceptibility or resistance to viral diseases. Herein we review multiple discoveries made with genome-wide or candidate gene approaches that have revealed significant insights into virus-host interactions. Genetic factors that have been identified include genes encoding virus receptors, receptor-modifying enzymes, and a wide variety of innate and adaptive immunity-related proteins. We discuss a range of pathogenic viruses, including influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, human immunodeficiency virus, human T cell leukemia virus, human papilloma virus, hepatitis B and C viruses, herpes simplex virus, norovirus, rotavirus, parvovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus. Understanding the genetic underpinnings that affect infectious disease outcomes should allow tailored treatment and prevention approaches in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Kenney
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - James A Dowdle
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA;
| | - Leonia Bozzacco
- Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA.,Current affiliation: Target Information Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Tarrytown, New York 10591, USA;
| | - Temet M McMichael
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - Corine St Gelais
- Center of Retrovirus Research, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - Amanda R Panfil
- Center of Retrovirus Research, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA; ,
| | - Larry S Schlesinger
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , , .,Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 78227, USA;
| | - Matthew Z Anderson
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - Patrick L Green
- Center of Retrovirus Research, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - Carolina B López
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA; ,
| | - Brad R Rosenberg
- Program in Immunogenomics, John C. Whitehead Presidential Fellows Program, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA.,Current affiliation: Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA;
| | - Li Wu
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , , .,Center of Retrovirus Research, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
| | - Jacob S Yount
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; , , ,
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Dowdle JA, Mehta M, Kass EM, Vuong BQ, Inagaki A, Egli D, Jasin M, Keeney S. Mouse BAZ1A (ACF1) is dispensable for double-strand break repair but is essential for averting improper gene expression during spermatogenesis. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003945. [PMID: 24244200 PMCID: PMC3820798 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers control DNA access for transcription, recombination, and other processes. Acf1 (also known as BAZ1A in mammals) is a defining subunit of the conserved ISWI-family chromatin remodelers ACF and CHRAC, first purified over 15 years ago from Drosophila melanogaster embryos. Much is known about biochemical properties of ACF and CHRAC, which move nucleosomes in vitro and in vivo to establish ordered chromatin arrays. Genetic studies in yeast, flies and cultured human cells clearly implicate these complexes in transcriptional repression via control of chromatin structures. RNAi experiments in transformed mammalian cells in culture also implicate ACF and CHRAC in DNA damage checkpoints and double-strand break repair. However, their essential in vivo roles in mammals are unknown. Here, we show that Baz1a-knockout mice are viable and able to repair developmentally programmed DNA double-strand breaks in the immune system and germ line, I-SceI endonuclease-induced breaks in primary fibroblasts via homologous recombination, and DNA damage from mitomycin C exposure in vivo. However, Baz1a deficiency causes male-specific sterility in accord with its high expression in male germ cells, where it displays dynamic, stage-specific patterns of chromosomal localization. Sterility is caused by pronounced defects in sperm development, most likely a consequence of massively perturbed gene expression in spermatocytes and round spermatids in the absence of BAZ1A: the normal spermiogenic transcription program is largely intact but more than 900 other genes are mis-regulated, primarily reflecting inappropriate up-regulation. We propose that large-scale changes in chromatin composition that occur during spermatogenesis create a window of vulnerability to promiscuous transcription changes, with an essential function of ACF and/or CHRAC chromatin remodeling activities being to safeguard against these alterations. The eukaryotic genome is packaged into a periodic nucleoprotein complex known as chromatin. Wrapping of DNA around nucleosomes, the basic repeat unit of chromatin, enables packing of long stretches of DNA into a compact nucleus but also impedes access by protein factors involved in essential cellular processes such as transcription, replication, recombination and repair. Chromatin remodeling factors are multi-protein complexes that utilize the energy released during ATP-hydrolysis to assemble, reposition, restructure and disassemble nucleosomes. These complexes disrupt histone-DNA contacts to ‘remodel’ the chromatin and grant access to the genome. Alternatively, access can also be denied to repress transcription, for example. Spermatogenesis, the developmental program that produces sperm, comprises a dramatic chromatin makeover and the induction of a transcriptional program that engages nearly one-third of the genome. Here we provide evidence suggesting that these large-scale alterations leave the genomic material vulnerable to spurious transcriptional changes which are normally repressed by ACF1 (BAZ1A in mammals), the defining member of the well-studied ACF/CHRAC chromatin remodeling complex. These findings indicate that Baz1a plays a previously unrealized role in male fertility and may represent a novel target for male contraceptive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A. Dowdle
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New York, New York, United States of America
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Monika Mehta
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth M. Kass
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Bao Q. Vuong
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Akiko Inagaki
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Dieter Egli
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Maria Jasin
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New York, New York, United States of America
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Scott Keeney
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New York, New York, United States of America
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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6
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Shaw AT, Meissner A, Dowdle JA, Crowley D, Magendantz M, Ouyang C, Parisi T, Rajagopal J, Blank LJ, Bronson RT, Stone JR, Tuveson DA, Jaenisch R, Jacks T. Sprouty-2 regulates oncogenic K-ras in lung development and tumorigenesis. Genes Dev 2007; 21:694-707. [PMID: 17369402 PMCID: PMC1820943 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1526207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Somatic activation of Ras occurs frequently in human cancers, including one-third of lung cancers. Activating Ras mutations also occur in the germline, leading to complex developmental syndromes. The precise mechanism by which Ras activation results in human disease is uncertain. Here we describe the phenotype of a mouse engineered to harbor a germline oncogenic K-rasG12D mutation. This mouse exhibits early embryonic lethality due to a placental trophoblast defect. Reconstitution with a wild-type placenta rescues the early lethality, but mutant embryos still succumb to cardiovascular and hematopoietic defects. In addition, mutant embryos demonstrate a profound defect in lung branching morphogenesis associated with striking up-regulation of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) antagonist Sprouty-2 and abnormal localization of MAPK activity within the lung epithelium. This defect can be significantly suppressed by lentiviral short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown of Sprouty-2 in vivo. Furthermore, in the context of K-rasG12D-mediated lung tumorigenesis, Sprouty-2 is also up-regulated and functions as a tumor suppressor to limit tumor number and overall tumor burden. These findings indicate that in the lung, Sprouty-2 plays a critical role in the regulation of oncogenic K-ras, and implicate counter-regulatory mechanisms in the pathogenesis of Ras-based disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice T. Shaw
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Alexander Meissner
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - James A. Dowdle
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Denise Crowley
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Margaret Magendantz
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Chensi Ouyang
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Tiziana Parisi
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Jayaraj Rajagopal
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Leah J. Blank
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Roderick T. Bronson
- Department of Pathology, Tufts University School of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02111, USA
| | - James R. Stone
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | | | - Rudolf Jaenisch
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Tyler Jacks
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Corresponding author.E-MAIL ; FAX (617) 253-9863
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