Targeting of SUMOylation leads to cBAF complex stabilization and disruption of the SS18::SSX transcriptome in Synovial Sarcoma

Synovial Sarcoma (SS) is driven by the SS18::SSX fusion oncoprotein. and is ultimately refractory to therapeutic approaches. SS18::SSX alters ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling BAF (mammalian SWI/SNF) complexes, leading to the degradation of canonical (cBAF) complex and amplified presence of an SS18::SSX-containing non-canonical BAF (ncBAF or GBAF) that drives an SS-specific transcription program and tumorigenesis. We demonstrate that SS18::SSX activates the SUMOylation program and SSs are sensitive to the small molecule SAE1/2 inhibitor, TAK-981. Mechanistically, TAK-981 de-SUMOylates the cBAF subunit SMARCE1, stabilizing and restoring cBAF on chromatin, shifting away from SS18::SSX-ncBAF-driven transcription, associated with DNA damage and cell death and resulting in tumor inhibition across both human and mouse SS tumor models. TAK-981 synergized with cytotoxic chemotherapy through increased DNA damage, leading to tumor regression. Targeting the SUMOylation pathway in SS restores cBAF complexes and blocks the SS18::SSX-ncBAF transcriptome, identifying a therapeutic vulnerability in SS, positioning the in-clinic TAK-981 to treat SS.

Antitumor active trans‑platinum complexes through metabolic stability and enhanced cellular accumulation

Utilizing isoquinoline as a carrier ligand, we have evaluated the reactivity of selected trans‑platinum planar amine (TPA) carboxylate compounds by varying the leaving carboxylate group (acetate, hydroxyacetate, and lactate) in an effort to optimize the cytotoxic and metabolic efficiency. To measure the pharmacological properties of these compounds, a combination of systematic biophysical and biological studies were carried out mainly involving substitution reaction with NAM (N-acetyl-methionine), effects on DNA structural perturbation, cytotoxicity, cellular accumulation, metabolic stability, and cell cycle effects. TPA compounds showed minimal losses in cytotoxic efficacy and outperformed cisplatin after pre-incubation with serum, while displaying a distinct micromolar cytotoxic activity with minimal DNA binding and unaltered cell cycle. Monitoring the TPA compounds with NAM suggests the following trend for the reactivity: hydroxyacetate > lactate > acetate. The same trend was seen for the cytotoxicity in tumor cells and DNA binding, while the rate of drug inactivation/protein binding in cells was not significantly different among these leaving groups. Thus, our results show superior cellular efficacy of TPA compounds and distinct micromolar cytotoxic activities different than cisplatin. Moreover, we found the TPA compounds had prolonged survival and decreased tumor burden compared to the control mice in a relevant human ovarian cancer mouse model with A2780 cells expressing luciferase. Therefore, we propose that further optimization of the basic TPA structure can give further enhanced in vivo activity and may eventually be translated into the development of clinically relevant non-traditional platinum drugs.

Melanoma differentiation associated gene-9/syndecan binding protein promotes hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The oncogene Melanoma differentiation associated gene-9/syndecan binding protein (MDA-9/SDCBP) is overexpressed in many cancers, promoting aggressive, metastatic disease. However, the role of MDA-9 in regulating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has not been well studied.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

To unravel the function of MDA-9 in HCC, we generated and characterized a transgenic mouse with hepatocyte-specific overexpression of MDA-9 (Alb/MDA-9). Compared with wild-type (WT) littermates, Alb/MDA-9 mice demonstrated significantly higher incidence of N-nitrosodiethylamine/phenobarbital-induced HCC, with marked activation and infiltration of macrophages. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) in naive WT and Alb/MDA-9 hepatocytes identified activation of signaling pathways associated with invasion, angiogenesis, and inflammation, especially NF-κB and integrin-linked kinase signaling pathways. In nonparenchymal cells purified from naive livers, single-cell RNA-seq showed activation of Kupffer cells and macrophages in Alb/MDA-9 mice versus WT mice. A robust increase in the expression of Secreted phosphoprotein 1 (Spp1/osteopontin) was observed upon overexpression of MDA-9. Inhibition of NF-κB pathway blocked MDA-9-induced Spp1 induction, and knock down of Spp1 resulted in inhibition of MDA-9-induced macrophage migration, as well as angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Alb/MDA-9 is a mouse model with MDA-9 overexpression in any tissue type. Our findings unravel an HCC-promoting role of MDA-9 mediated by NF-κB and Spp1 and support the rationale of using MDA-9 inhibitors as a potential treatment for aggressive HCC.

A Comparison of Di- and Trinuclear Platinum Complexes Interacting with Glycosaminoglycans for Targeted Chemotherapy

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and their associated proteins aid in tumor progression through modulation of biological events such as cell invasion, angiogenesis, metastasis, and immunological responses. Metalloshielding of the anionic heparan sulfate (HS) chains by cationic polynuclear platinum complexes (PPCs) prevents the HS from interacting with HS-associated proteins and thus diminishes the critical functions of HSPG. Studies herein exploring the PPC-HS interactions demonstrated that a series of PPCs varying in charge, nuclearity, distance between Pt centers, and hydrogen-bonding ability influence HS affinity. We report that the polyamine-linked complexes have high HS affinity and display excellent in vivo activity against breast cancer metastases and those arising in the bone and liver compared to carboplatin. Overall, the PPC-HS niche offers an attractive approach for targeting HSPG-expressing tumor cells.

Targeting Oncogenic Mutant p53 and BCL-2 for Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment

Through a unique genomics and drug screening platform with ~800 solid tumor cell lines, we have found a subset of SCLC cell lines are hypersensitive to venetoclax, an FDA-approved inhibitor of BCL-2. SCLC-A (ASCL1 positive) and SCLC-P (POU2F3 positive), which make up almost 80% of SCLC, frequently express high levels of BCL-2. We found that a subset of SCLC-A and SCLC-P showed high BCL-2 expression but were venetoclax-resistant. In addition, most of these SCLC cell lines have TP53 missense mutations, which make a single amino acid change. These mutants not only lose wild-type (WT) p53 tumor suppressor functions, but also acquire novel cancer-promoting activities (oncogenic, gain-of-function). A recent study with oncogenic mutant (Onc)-p53 knock-in mouse models of SCLC suggests gain-of-function activity can attenuate chemotherapeutic efficacy. Based on these observations, we hypothesize that Onc-p53 confers venetoclax resistance and that simultaneous inhibition of BCL-2 and Onc-p53 induces synergistic anticancer activity in a subset of SCLC-A and SCLC-P. We show here that (1) down-regulation of Onc-p53 increases the expression of a BH3-only pro-apoptotic BIM and sensitizes to venetoclax in SCLC-P cells; (2) targeting Onc-p53 by the HSP90 inhibitor, ganetespib, increases BIM expression and sensitizes to venetoclax in SCLC-P and SCLC-A cells. Although there are currently many combination studies for venetoclax proposed, the concept of simultaneous targeting of BCL-2 and Onc-p53 by the combination of venetoclax and HSP90 inhibitors would be a promising approach for SCLC treatment.

Genomic screening reveals ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 1 as a potent and druggable target in c-MYC-high triple negative breast cancer models

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) accounts for over 30% of all breast cancer (BC)-related deaths, despite accounting for only 10% to 15% of total BC cases. Targeted therapy development has largely stalled in TNBC, underlined by a lack of traditionally druggable addictions like receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Here, through full genome CRISPR/Cas9 screening of TNBC models, we have uncovered the sensitivity of TNBCs to the depletion of the ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA1). Targeting UBA1 with the first-in-class UBA1 inhibitor TAK-243 induced unresolvable endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress and activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4)-mediated upregulation of proapoptotic NOXA, leading to cell death. c-MYC expression correlates with TAK-243 sensitivity and cooperates with TAK-243 to induce a stress response and cell death. Importantly, there was an order of magnitude greater sensitivity of TNBC lines to TAK-243 compared to normal tissue-derived cells. In five patient derived xenograft models (PDXs) of TNBC, TAK-243 therapy led to tumor inhibition or frank tumor regression. Moreover, in an intracardiac metastatic model of TNBC, TAK-243 markedly reduced metastatic burden, indicating UBA1 is a potential new target in TNBC expressing high levels of c-MYC.

Pharmacologic Inhibition of SHP2 Blocks Both PI3K and MEK Signaling in Low-epiregulin HNSCC via GAB1

Preclinical and clinical studies have evidenced that effective targeted therapy treatment against receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) in different solid tumor paradigms is predicated on simultaneous inhibition of both the PI3K and MEK intracellular signaling pathways. Indeed, re-activation of either pathway results in resistance to these therapies. Recently, oncogenic phosphatase SHP2 inhibitors have been developed with some now reaching clinical trials. To expand on possible indications for SHP099, we screened over 800 cancer cell lines covering over 25 subsets of cancer. We found HNSCC was the most sensitive adult subtype of cancer to SHP099. We found that, in addition to the MEK pathway, SHP2 inhibition blocks the PI3K pathway in sensitive HNSCC, resulting in downregulation of mTORC signaling and anti-tumor effects across several HNSCC mouse models, including an HPV+ patient-derived xenograft (PDX). Importantly, we found low levels of the RTK ligand epiregulin identified HNSCCs that were sensitive to SHP2 inhibitor, and, adding exogenous epiregulin mitigated SHP099 efficacy. Mechanistically, epiregulin maintained SHP2-GAB1 complexes in the presence of SHP2 inhibition, preventing downregulation of the MEK and PI3K pathways. We demonstrate HNSCCs were highly dependent on GAB1 for their survival and knockdown of GAB1 is sufficient to block the ability of epiregulin to rescue MEK and PI3K signaling. These data connect the sensitivity of HNSCC to SHP2 inhibitors and to a broad reliance on GAB1-SHP2, revealing an important and druggable signaling axis. Overall, SHP2 inhibitors are being heavily developed and may have activity in HNSCCs, and in particular those with low levels of epiregulin.

Radiation induces ESCRT pathway dependent CD44v3+ extracellular vesicle production stimulating pro-tumor fibroblast activity in breast cancer

Despite recent advances in radiotherapeutic strategies, acquired resistance remains a major obstacle, leading to tumor recurrence for many patients. Once thought to be a strictly cancer cell intrinsic property, it is becoming increasingly clear that treatment-resistance is driven in part by complex interactions between cancer cells and non-transformed cells of the tumor microenvironment. Herein, we report that radiotherapy induces the production of extracellular vesicles by breast cancer cells capable of stimulating tumor-supporting fibroblast activity, facilitating tumor survival and promoting cancer stem-like cell expansion. This pro-tumor activity was associated with fibroblast production of the paracrine signaling factor IL-6 and was dependent on the expression of the heparan sulfate proteoglycan CD44v3 on the vesicle surface. Enzymatic removal or pharmaceutical inhibition of its heparan sulfate side chains disrupted this tumor-fibroblast crosstalk. Additionally, we show that the radiation-induced production of CD44v3⁺ vesicles is effectively silenced by blocking the ESCRT pathway using a soluble pharmacological inhibitor of MDA-9/Syntenin/SDCBP PDZ1 domain activity, PDZ1i. This population of vesicles was also detected in the sera of human patients undergoing radiotherapy, therefore representing a potential biomarker for radiation therapy and providing an opportunity for clinical intervention to improve treatment outcomes.

Abstract 362: MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma is addicted to iron and vulnerable to ferroptosis

MYCN is amplified in 20% to 25% of neuroblastoma, and MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma contributes to a large percent of pediatric cancer-related deaths. Therapy improvements for this subtype of cancer are a high priority. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent, oxidative form of cell death that is counteracted mainly by the production of Glutathione Peroxidase 4 (GPX4), a phospholipid hydroperoxidase that is produced through the glutathione pathway. The identification of cancers that may benefit from ferroptosis inducers are just emerging. Here we uncover a MYCN-dependent therapeutic vulnerability in neuroblastoma. Namely, amplified MYCN rewires the cell through expression of key receptors, ultimately enhancing iron influx through increased expression of the iron import transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1). Accumulating iron causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and MYCN-amplified neuroblastomas show enhanced reliance on the system Xc- cystine/glutamate antiporter for ROS detoxification through increased transcription of this receptor. By performing metabolomics, we demonstrate that the transsulfuration pathway is also activated by MYCN. The increased activation of both pathways leads to cysteine accumulation that results in inhibition of lipid peroxidation. Utilizing drugs that target the main components of the glutathione and transsulfuration pathway we sensitize the MYCN neuroblastomas to ferroptotic cell death. These data provide novel insights into how MYCN alters the transcriptome in neuroblastoma to confer growth and survival advantages and simultaneously sheds light on the mechanism of action of ferroptosis inducers with potential application in other types of cancer.

Citation Format: Konstantinos V. Floros, Mia O. Johnson-Berro, Richard Kurupi, Carter K. Fairchild, Krista Dalton, Bin Hu, Madhavi Puchalapalli, Mikhail G. Dozmorov, Jennifer E. Koblinski, James A. Olzmann, Lauren A. Cowart, Anthony C. Faber. MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma is addicted to iron and vulnerable to ferroptosis [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 362.

Exploitation of sulfated glycosaminoglycan status for precision medicine of Triplatin in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer lacking targetable biomarkers. TNBC is known to be most aggressive, and when metastatic is often drug resistant and uncurable. Biomarkers predicting response to therapy improve treatment decisions and allow personalized approaches for TNBC patients. This study explores sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) levels as a predictor of TNBC response to platinum therapy. sGAG levels were quantified in three distinct TNBC tumor models including cell line-derived, patient-derived xenograft (PDX) tumors, and isogenic models deficient in sGAG biosynthesis. The in vivo antitumor efficacy of Triplatin, a sGAG-directed platinum agent, was compared in these models to the clinical platinum agent, carboplatin. We determined that >40% of TNBC PDX tissue microarray samples have high levels of sGAGs. The in vivo accumulation of Triplatin in tumors as well as antitumor efficacy of Triplatin positively correlated with sGAG levels on tumor cells, whereas carboplatin followed the opposite trend. In carboplatin-resistant tumor models expressing high levels of sGAGs, Triplatin decreased primary tumor growth, reduced lung metastases, and inhibited metastatic growth in lungs, liver, and ovaries. sGAG levels served as a predictor of Triplatin sensitivity in TNBC. Triplatin may be particularly beneficial in treating patients with chemotherapy-resistant tumors who have evidence of residual disease after standard neoadjuvant chemotherapy. More effective neoadjuvant and adjuvant treatment will likely improve clinical outcome of TNBC.

Pharmaceutical Interference of the EWS-FLI1-driven Transcriptome By Cotargeting H3K27ac and RNA Polymerase Activity in Ewing Sarcoma

The EWSR1-FLI1 t(11;22)(q24;q12) translocation is the hallmark genomic alteration of Ewing sarcoma, a malignancy of the bone and surrounding tissue, predominantly affecting children and adolescents. Although significant progress has been made for the treatment of localized disease, patients with metastasis or who relapse after chemotherapy have less than a 30% five-year survival rate. EWS-FLI1 is currently not clinically druggable, driving the need for more effective targeted therapies. Treatment with the H3K27 demethylase inhibitor, GSK-J4, leads to an increase in H3K27me and a decrease in H3K27ac, a significant event in Ewing sarcoma because H3K27ac associates strongly with EWS-FLI1 binding at enhancers and promoters and subsequent activity of EWS-FLI1 target genes. We were able to identify targets of EWS-FLI1 tumorigenesis directly inhibited by GSK-J4. GSK-J4 disruption of EWS-FLI1-driven transcription was toxic to Ewing sarcoma cells and slowed tumor growth in patient-derived xenografts (PDX) of Ewing sarcoma. Responses were markedly exacerbated by cotreatment with a disruptor of RNA polymerase II activity, the CDK7 inhibitor THZ1. This combination together suppressed EWS-FLI1 target genes and viability of ex vivo PDX Ewing sarcoma cells in a synergistic manner. In PDX models of Ewing Sarcoma, the combination shrank tumors. We present a new therapeutic strategy to treat Ewing sarcoma by decreasing H3K27ac at EWS-FLI1-driven transcripts, exacerbated by blocking phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II to further hinder the EWS-FLI1-driven transcriptome.

Conformational Modulation of Iduronic Acid-Containing Sulfated Glycosaminoglycans by a Polynuclear Platinum Compound and Implications for Development of Antimetastatic Platinum Drugs

1 H NMR spectroscopic studies on the 1:1 adduct of the pentasaccharide Fondaparinux (FPX) and the substitution-inert polynuclear platinum complex TriplatinNC show significant modulation of geometry around the glycosidic linkages of the FPX constituent monosaccharides. FPX is a valid model for the highly sulfated cell signalling molecule heparan sulfate (HS). The conformational ratio of the 1 C4 :2 S0 forms of the FPX residue IdoA(2S) is altered from ca. 35:65 (free FPX) to ca. 75:25 in the adduct; the first demonstration of a small molecule affecting conformational changes on a HS oligosaccharide. Functional consequences of such binding are suggested to be inhibition of HS cleavage in MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. We further describe inhibition of metastasis by TriplatinNC in the TNBC 4T1 syngeneic tumour model. Our work provides insight into a novel approach for design of platinum drugs (and coordination compounds in general) with intrinsic anti-metastatic potential.

MYCN-Amplified Neuroblastoma Is Addicted to Iron and Vulnerable to Inhibition of the System Xc-/Glutathione Axis

MYCN is amplified in 20% to 25% of neuroblastoma, and MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma contributes to a large percent of pediatric cancer-related deaths. Therapy improvements for this subtype of cancer are a high priority. Here we uncover a MYCN-dependent therapeutic vulnerability in neuroblastoma. Namely, amplified MYCN rewires the cell through expression of key receptors, ultimately enhancing iron influx through increased expression of the iron import transferrin receptor 1. Accumulating iron causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and MYCN-amplified neuroblastomas show enhanced reliance on the system Xc- cystine/glutamate antiporter for ROS detoxification through increased transcription of this receptor. This dependence creates a marked vulnerability to targeting the system Xc-/glutathione (GSH) pathway with ferroptosis inducers. This reliance can be exploited through therapy with FDA-approved rheumatoid arthritis drugs sulfasalazine (SAS) and auranofin: in MYCN-amplified, patient-derived xenograft models, both therapies blocked growth and induced ferroptosis. SAS and auranofin activity was largely mitigated by the ferroptosis inhibitor ferrostatin-1, antioxidants like N-acetyl-L-cysteine, or by the iron scavenger deferoxamine (DFO). DFO reduced auranofin-induced ROS, further linking increased iron capture in MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma to a therapeutic vulnerability to ROS-inducing drugs. These data uncover an oncogene vulnerability to ferroptosis caused by increased iron accumulation and subsequent reliance on the system Xc-/GSH pathway. SIGNIFICANCE: This study shows how MYCN increases intracellular iron levels and subsequent GSH pathway activity and demonstrates the antitumor activity of FDA-approved SAS and auranofin in patient-derived xenograft models of MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma.

Mixed occupational and iatrogenic allergic contact dermatitis in a hairdresser

Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is a common occupational disease. Hairdressers and beauticians are at increased risk of occupational chronic hand eczema. We present a case of mixed occupational, non-occupational and iatrogenic ACD in a hairdresser which illustrates that delayed diagnosis can result in high morbidity, and unnecessary treatment and cost. A hairdresser with chronic hand and facial eczema failed medical management with topical steroids and dupilumab. Patch testing revealed contact allergy to multiple occupational exposures, home exposures and topical medicaments.

Inhibition of the Activity of Cyclophilin A Impedes Prolactin Receptor-Mediated Signaling, Mammary Tumorigenesis, and Metastases

Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor (PRLr) play important roles in the pathogenesis of breast cancer. Cyclophilin A (CypA) is a cis-trans peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PPI) that is constitutively associated with the PRLr and facilitates the activation of the tyrosine kinase Jak2. Treatment with the non-immunosuppressive prolyl isomerase inhibitor NIM811 or CypA short hairpin RNA inhibited PRL-stimulated signaling, breast cancer cell growth, and migration. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that NIM811 inhibited two-thirds of the top 50 PRL-induced genes and a reduction in gene pathways associated with cancer cell signaling. In vivo treatment of NIM811 in a TNBC xenograft lessened primary tumor growth and induced central tumor necrosis. Deletion of CypA in the MMTV-PyMT mouse model demonstrated inhibition of tumorigenesis with significant reduction in lung and lymph node metastasis. The regulation of PRLr/Jak2-mediated biology by NIM811 demonstrates that a non-immunosuppressive prolyl isomerase inhibitor can function as a potential breast cancer therapeutic.

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CypA inhibition or knockdown blocks breast cancer cell signaling, growth, and migration

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NIM811 inhibited PRL-induced genes and gene pathways relevant to cancer signaling

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Deletion of CypA has shown reduction in tumorigenesis and metastasis in mice

Abstract C068: Toward precision medicine for platinums

Over half of all cancer patients will receive a platinum drug during their treatment. Recent interest in our labs involve exploiting the high affinity of a discrete class of platinum-based anticancer agents, polynuclear platinum complexes (PPCs), for sulfated glycosaminoglycans (sGAGs). sGAGs are increasingly seen as potential biomarkers and molecular targets in many forms of cancer. sGAG expression levels were quantified in patient derived xenograft (PDX) and cellular models of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) and ovarian cancer. PPCs, but not carboplatin, show increased levels of tumor uptake and efficacy in models expressing high levels of sGAGs. sGAGs may provide a viable target for PPCs, producing a significant advantage over clinical platinum agents in this setting.

Citation Format: Jennifer E Koblinski, Erica J Peterson, James D. Hampton, J Chuck Harrell, Nicholas P Farrell. Toward precision medicine for platinums [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR-NCI-EORTC International Conference on Molecular Targets and Cancer Therapeutics; 2019 Oct 26-30; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Mol Cancer Ther 2019;18(12 Suppl):Abstract nr C068. doi:10.1158/1535-7163.TARG-19-C068

Syndecan-1 facilitates breast cancer metastasis to the brain

PURPOSE

Although survival rates for patients with localized breast cancer have increased, patients with metastatic breast cancer still have poor prognosis. Understanding key factors involved in promoting breast cancer metastasis is imperative for better treatments. In this study, we investigated the role of syndecan-1 (Sdc1) in breast cancer metastasis.

METHODS

To assess the role of Sdc1 in breast cancer metastasis, we silenced Sdc1 expression in the triple-negative breast cancer human MDA-MB-231 cell line and overexpressed it in the mouse mammary carcinoma 4T1 cell line. Intracardiac injections were performed in an experimental mouse metastasis model using both cell lines. In vitro transwell blood-brain barrier (BBB) and brain section adhesion assays were utilized to specifically investigate how Sdc1 facilitates brain metastasis. A cytokine array was performed to evaluate differences in the breast cancer cell secretome when Sdc1 is silenced.

RESULTS

Silencing expression of Sdc1 in breast cancer cells significantly reduced metastasis to the brain. Conversely, overexpression of Sdc1 increased metastasis to the brain. We found that silencing of Sdc1 expression had no effect on attachment of breast cancer cells to brain endothelial cells or astrocytes, but migration across the BBB was reduced as well as adhesion to the perivascular regions of the brain. Loss of Sdc1 also led to changes in breast cancer cell-secreted cytokines/chemokines, which may influence the BBB.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our study demonstrates a role for Sdc1 in promoting breast cancer metastasis to the brain. These findings suggest that Sdc1 supports breast cancer cell migration across the BBB through regulation of cytokines, which may modulate the BBB. Further elucidating this mechanism will allow for the development of therapeutic strategies to combat brain metastasis.

24R,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological studies indicate high serum 25(OH)D₃ is associated with increased survival in breast cancer patients. Pre-clinical studies attributed this to anti-tumorigenic properties of its metabolite 1α,25(OH)₂D₃. However, 1α,25(OH)₂D₃ is highly calcemic and thus has a narrow therapeutic window. Here we propose another metabolite, 24R,25(OH)₂D₃, as an alternative non-calcemic vitamin D₃ supplement.

METHODS

NOD-SCID-IL2γR null female mice with MCF7 breast cancer xenografts in the mammary fat pad were treated with 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ and changes in tumor burden and metastases were assessed. ERα66+ MCF7 and T47D cells, and ERα66- HCC38 cells were treated with 24R,25(OH)₂D₃in vitro to assess effects on proliferation and apoptosis. Effects on migration and metastatic markers were assessed in MCF7.

RESULTS

24R,25(OH)₂D₃ reduced MCF7 tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. In vitro results indicate that this was not due to an anti-proliferative effect; 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ stimulated DNA synthesis in MCF7 and T47D. In contrast, markers of invasion and metastasis were decreased. 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ caused dose-dependent increases in apoptosis in MCF7 and T47D, but not HCC38 cells. Inhibitors to palmitoylation, caveolae integrity, phospholipase-D, and estrogen receptors (ER) demonstrate that 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ acts on MCF7 cells through caveolae-associated, phospholipase D-dependent mechanisms via cross-talk with ERs.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ shows promise in treatment of breast cancer by stimulating tumor apoptosis and reducing metastasis.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

24R,25(OH)₂D₃ regulates breast cancer cell survival through ER-associated mechanisms similar to 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ effects on chondrocytes. Thus, 24R,25(OH)₂D₃ may modulate cell survival in other estrogen-responsive cell types, and its therapeutic potential should be investigated in ER-associated pathologies.

Increased Synthesis of MCL-1 Protein Underlies Initial Survival of EGFR-Mutant Lung Cancer to EGFR Inhibitors and Provides a Novel Drug Target

Purpose: EGFR inhibitors (EGFRi) are effective against EGFR-mutant lung cancers. The efficacy of these drugs, however, is mitigated by the outgrowth of resistant cells, most often driven by a secondary acquired mutation in EGFR, T790M We recently demonstrated that T790M can arise de novo during treatment; it follows that one potential therapeutic strategy to thwart resistance would be identifying and eliminating these cells [referred to as drug-tolerant cells (DTC)] prior to acquiring secondary mutations like T790M Experimental Design: We have developed DTCs to EGFRi in EGFR-mutant lung cancer cell lines. Subsequent analyses of DTCs included RNA-seq, high-content microscopy, and protein translational assays. Based on these results, we tested the ability of MCL-1 BH3 mimetics to combine with EGFR inhibitors to eliminate DTCs and shrink EGFR-mutant lung cancer tumors in vivo Results: We demonstrate surviving EGFR-mutant lung cancer cells upregulate the antiapoptotic protein MCL-1 in response to short-term EGFRi treatment. Mechanistically, DTCs undergo a protein biosynthesis enrichment resulting in increased mTORC1-mediated mRNA translation of MCL-1, revealing a novel mechanism in which lung cancer cells adapt to short-term pressures of apoptosis-inducing kinase inhibitors. Moreover, MCL-1 is a key molecule governing the emergence of early EGFR-mutant DTCs to EGFRi, and we demonstrate it can be effectively cotargeted with clinically emerging MCL-1 inhibitors both in vitro and in vivo Conclusions: Altogether, these data reveal that this novel therapeutic combination may delay the acquisition of secondary mutations, therefore prolonging therapy efficacy. Clin Cancer Res; 24(22); 5658-72. ©2018 AACR.

Transforming activity and therapeutic targeting of C-terminal-binding protein 2 in Apc-mutated neoplasia

Overexpression of the transcriptional coregulators C-terminal binding proteins 1 and 2 (CtBP) occurs in many human solid tumors and is associated with poor prognosis. CtBP modulates oncogenic gene expression programs and is an emerging drug target, but its oncogenic role is unclear. Consistent with oncogenic potential, exogenous CtBP2 transformed primary mouse and human cells to anchorage independence similarly to mutant H-Ras. To investigate CtBP’s contribution to in vivo tumorigenesis, Apc^min/+ mice, which succumb to massive intestinal polyposis, were bred to Ctbp2^+/− mice. CtBP interacts with Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC) protein, and is stabilized in both APC-mutated human colon cancers and Apc^min/+ intestinal polyps. Ctbp2 heterozygosity increased the median survival of Apc^min/+ mice from 21 to 48 weeks, and reduced polyp formation by 90%, with Ctbp2^+/− polyps exhibiting reduced levels of β-catenin and its oncogenic transcriptional target, cyclin D1. Ctbp’s potential as a therapeutic target was studied by treating Apc^min/+ mice with the CtBP small molecule inhibitors 4-methlythio-2-oxobutyric acid and 2-hydroxy-imino phenylpyruvic acid, both of which reduced polyposis by more than half compared with vehicle treatment. Phenocopying Ctbp2 deletion, both Ctbp inhibitors caused substantial decreases in the protein level of Ctbp2, as well its oncogenic partner β-catenin, and the effects of the inhibitors on CtBP and β-catenin levels could be modeled in an APC mutated human colon cancer cell line. CtBP2 is thus a druggable transforming oncoprotein critical for the evolution of neoplasia driven by Apc mutation.

NSG Mice Provide a Better Spontaneous Model of Breast Cancer Metastasis than Athymic (Nude) Mice

Metastasis is the most common cause of mortality in breast cancer patients worldwide. To identify improved mouse models for breast cancer growth and spontaneous metastasis, we examined growth and metastasis of both estrogen receptor positive (T47D) and negative (MDA-MB-231, SUM1315, and CN34BrM) human breast cancer cells in nude and NSG mice. Both primary tumor growth and spontaneous metastases were increased in NSG mice compared to nude mice. In addition, a pattern of metastasis similar to that observed in human breast cancer patients (metastases to the lungs, liver, bones, brain, and lymph nodes) was found in NSG mice. Furthermore, there was an increase in the metastatic burden in NSG compared to nude mice that were injected with MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells in an intracardiac experimental metastasis model. This data demonstrates that NSG mice provide a better model for studying human breast cancer metastasis compared to the current nude mouse model.

Targeting the metabolic plasticity of multiple myeloma with FDA-approved ritonavir and metformin

PURPOSE

We have previously demonstrated that ritonavir targeting of glycolysis is growth inhibitory and cytotoxic in a subset of multiple myeloma cells. In this study, our objective was to investigate the metabolic basis of resistance to ritonavir and to determine the utility of cotreatment with the mitochondrial complex I inhibitor metformin to target compensatory metabolism.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We determined combination indices for ritonavir and metformin, impact on myeloma cell lines, patient samples, and myeloma xenograft growth. Additional evaluation in breast, melanoma, and ovarian cancer cell lines was also performed. Signaling connected to suppression of the prosurvival BCL-2 family member MCL-1 was evaluated in multiple myeloma cell lines and tumor lysates. Reliance on oxidative metabolism was determined by evaluation of oxygen consumption, and dependence on glutamine was assessed by estimation of viability upon metabolite withdrawal in the context of specific metabolic perturbations.

RESULTS

Ritonavir-treated multiple myeloma cells exhibited increased reliance on glutamine metabolism. Ritonavir sensitized multiple myeloma cells to metformin, effectively eliciting cytotoxicity both in vitro and in an in vivo xenograft model of multiple myeloma and in breast, ovarian, and melanoma cancer cell lines. Ritonavir and metformin effectively suppressed AKT and mTORC1 phosphorylation and prosurvival BCL-2 family member MCL-1 expression in multiple myeloma cell lines in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

FDA-approved ritonavir and metformin effectively target multiple myeloma cell metabolism to elicit cytotoxicity in multiple myeloma. Our studies warrant further investigation into repurposing ritonavir and metformin to target the metabolic plasticity of myeloma to more broadly target myeloma heterogeneity and prevent the reemergence of chemoresistant aggressive multiple myeloma.

Rapid remodeling of tight junctions during paracellular diapedesis in a human model of the blood-brain barrier

Leukocyte transendothelial migration (TEM; diapedesis) is a critical event in immune surveillance and inflammation. Most TEM occurs at endothelial cell borders (paracellular). However, there is indirect evidence to suggest that, at the tight junctions of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), leukocytes migrate directly through the endothelial cell body (transcellular). Why leukocytes migrate through the endothelial cell body rather than the cell borders is unknown. To test the hypothesis that the tightness of endothelial cell junctions influences the pathway of diapedesis, we developed an in vitro model of the BBB that possessed 10-fold higher electrical resistance than standard culture conditions and strongly expressed the BBB tight junction proteins claudin-5 and claudin-3. We found that paracellular TEM was still the predominant pathway (≥98%) and TEM was dependent on PECAM-1 and CD99. We show that endothelial tight junctions expressing claudin-5 are dynamic and undergo rapid remodeling during TEM. Membrane from the endothelial lateral border recycling compartment is mobilized to the exact site of tight junction remodeling. This preserves the endothelial barrier by sealing the intercellular gaps with membrane and engaging the migrating leukocyte with unligated adhesion molecules (PECAM-1 and CD99) as it crosses the cell border. These findings provide new insights into leukocyte-endothelial interactions at the BBB and suggest that tight junctions are more dynamic than previously appreciated.

Laminin-111-derived peptides and cancer

Laminin-111 is a large trimeric basement membrane glycoprotein with many active sites. In particular, four peptides active in tumor malignancy studies have been identified in laminin-111 using a systematic peptide screening method followed by various assays. Two of the peptides (IKVAV and AG73) are found on the α1 chain, one (YIGSR) of the β1 chain and one (C16) on the γ1 chain. The four peptides have distinct activities and receptors. Since three of the peptides (IKVAV, AG73 and C16) strongly promote tumor growth, this may explain the potent effects laminin-111 has on malignant cells. The peptide, YIGSR, decreases tumor growth and experimental metastasis via a 32/67 kD receptor while IKVAV increases tumor growth, angiogenesis and protease activity via integrin receptors. AG73 increases tumor growth and metastases via syndecan receptors. C16 increases tumor growth and angiogenesis via integrins. Identification of such sites on laminin-111 will have use in defining strategies to develop therapeutics for cancer.

Bone marrow-derived cathepsin K cleaves SPARC in bone metastasis

Bone metastasis is a hallmark of advanced prostate and breast cancers, yet the critical factors behind attraction of tumors to the skeleton have not been validated. Here, we investigated the involvement of cathepsin K in the progression of prostate tumors in the bone, which occurs both by direct degradation of bone matrix collagen I and by cleavage of other factors in the bone microenvironment. Our results demonstrated that bone marrow-derived cathepsin K is capable of processing and thereby modulating SPARC, a protein implicated in bone metastasis and inflammation. The coincident up-regulation of SPARC and cathepsin K occurred both in vivo in experimental prostate bone tumors, and in vitro in co-cultures of bone marrow stromal cells with PC3 prostate carcinoma cells. PC3-bone marrow stromal cell interaction increased secretion and processing of SPARC, as did co-cultures of bone marrow stromal cells with two other cancer cell lines. In addition, bone marrow stromal cells that were either deficient in cathepsin K or treated with cathepsin K inhibitors had significantly reduced secretion and cleavage of SPARC. Increases in secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (ie, interleukin-6, -8) coincident with overexpression of cathepsin K suggest possible mechanisms by which this enzyme contributes to tumor progression in the bone. This is the first study implicating bone marrow cathepsin K in regulation of biological activity of SPARC in bone metastasis.

Prolyl isomerase cyclophilin A regulation of Janus-activated kinase 2 and the progression of human breast cancer

The activation of the Janus-activated kinase 2 (Jak2) tyrosine kinase following ligand binding has remained incompletely characterized at the mechanistic level. We report that the peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PPI) cyclophilin A (CypA), which is implicated in the regulation of protein conformation, is necessary for the prolactin (PRL)-induced activation of Jak2 and the progression of human breast cancer. A direct correlation was observed between the levels or activity of CypA and the extent of PRL-induced signaling and gene expression. Loss of PRLr-CypA binding, following treatment with the PPI inhibitor cyclosporine A (CsA), or overexpression of a dominant-negative PRLr mutant (P334A) resulted in a loss of PRLr/Jak2-mediated signaling. In vitro, CsA treatment of breast cancer cells inhibited their growth, motility, invasion, and soft agar colony formation. In vivo, CsA treatment of nude mice xenografted with breast cancer cells induced tumor necrosis and completely inhibited metastasis. These studies reveal that a CypA-mediated conformational change within the PRLr/Jak2 complex is required for PRL-induced transduction and function and indicate that the inhibition of prolyl isomerases may be a novel therapeutic strategy in the treatment of human breast cancer.

Angiogenic laminin-derived peptides stimulate wound healing

Acceleration of the wound healing process by using angiogenic peptides has been demonstrated previously. Here we used select laminin-111 peptides, A13 and C16, from the laminin alpha1 and gamma1 chain, respectively, to test whether they are able to stimulate wound healing in a rat full thickness wound model. The 12-mer peptides C16 and A13 are highly angiogenic and bind to integrins alphavbeta3 and alpha5beta1. We show that A13 increases wound re-epithelialization as much as 17% over controls by day 4 and C16 increases coverage by 11%. Contraction of the treated wounds was increased as much as 11% for A13 and 8% for C16 at day 4. No differences were observed at day 7 with either peptide. The peptides also stimulated fibroblast migration in Boyden chamber assays. A13 increased cell migration as much as 2.4-fold on uncoated filters and as much as 16-fold on collagen type IV-coated filters over negative controls. Similarly, C16 also stimulated migration 1.8-fold on uncoated filters and as much as 12-fold on collagen-coated filters. A13 and C16 significantly decreased expression of the pro and active forms of matrix metalloproteinase 2 in foreskin fibroblasts indicating their role in collagen accumulation. We conclude that small bioactive angiogenic peptides can promote dermal wound healing and may offer a new class of stable and chemically manipulable therapeutics for wound healing.

The laminin alpha-1 chain derived peptide, AG73, increases fibronectin levels in breast and melanoma cancer cells

Laminin-111 promotes the malignant phenotype, and a 12-mer synthetic peptide (AG73, RKRLQVQLSIRT) from the carboxyl terminus of the alpha1 chain increases B16F10 melanoma metastasis to the lung and liver. Using an antibody array, fibronectin was identified as an up-regulated protein in B16F10 cells after incubation with this peptide. The increased fibronectin is cell-associated with no increase in soluble fibronectin. The AG73 peptide increased the number and size of bone metastases with both B16F10 melanoma and MDA-231 breast carcinoma cells in an intracardiac injection model. Using siRNA transfection, we found that a reduction in fibronectin expression did not reduce bone metastasis in the presence of the metastasis-promoting peptide AG73. We conclude that the laminin peptide AG73 increases metastasis independently of fibronectin expression.

Roles of osteonectin in the migration of breast cancer cells into bone

The focus of this study was to gain insight into the role(s) of osteonectin in the preferential metastasis of breast cancer cells to bone. Osteonectin was isolated from conditioned media of several cell lines including breast cancer (MDA-MB-435, MDA-MB-468), osteoblasts (hFOB1.19), non-neoplastic breast epithelial (hTERT-HME1), and vascular endothelial cells isolated from a bone biopsy (HBME-1). Chemical/physical properties of osteonectin from these five sources was analyzed to determine if unique configurations of osteonectin exist and therefore identify a chemotactic isoform. Osteonectin from all sources had a molecular weight of approximately 46 kDa, N-linked glycosylation, and undetectable phosphorylated serines, sialic acids and O-linked oligosaccharides. The cDNA for osteonectin from the breast cancer, osteoblast, and breast epithelial cell lines was identical, while the vascular endothelial cell cDNA contained point mutations that resulted in eight amino acid substitutions. Bone-derived osteonectin was then analyzed to assess its influence on breast cancer cell motility and migration. Although osteonectin increased undirected MDA-MB-231 cell motility, it did not chemoattract the same breast cancer cell line. However, the breast cancer cells did migrate toward the known chemoattractant vitronectin and to bone extracts derived from wild-type and osteonectin-null mice. Migration to vitronectin was enhanced when osteonectin was also present. We concluded that osteonectin was not a chemotactic factor. However, through its anti-adhesive properties, osteonectin induced undirected breast cancer cell motility, and may have enhanced chemoattraction to vitronectin.

Matrix cell adhesion activation by non-adhesion proteins

Cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix is important in many biological processes. Various ligands and cell surface receptors have been defined. In vitro cell adhesion to matrix proteins and to other 'adhesion' proteins is generally measured on plastic culture substrates. We have found that the presence of low levels of adhesion proteins, e.g. fibronectin, together with high concentrations of non-adhesion proteins, e.g. osteonectin, can promote cell attachment on plastic culture dishes. This promotion of adhesion occurs even when the concentrations of fibronectin, collagen and other adhesive proteins are too low to support cell attachment alone. Other non-adhesive proteins that have similar activity in 'triggering' the attachment of cells to low levels of adhesion molecules include bovine serum albumin (BSA) and cytochrome C. The non-adhesive protein must be added to the plate first, or together with the low amount of the adhesion protein, to 'activate' cell attachment. Adding the adhesion protein fibronectin to the plate first, followed by osteonectin, resulted in no 'activation' of attachment. The non-adhesive protein did not bind to the adhesive protein nor did it alter the level of adhesive protein binding to the substrate. The non-adhesive protein did, however, expose integrin-binding sites of the adhesive protein fibronectin. These data confirm and extend previous data by others demonstrating the role of non-adhesive proteins in regulating the conformation and cell adhesive activity of matrix adhesion proteins on plastic surfaces. Such findings might explain contradictions in the literature about the activity of 'adhesive proteins'.

Endogenous Osteonectin/SPARC/BM-40 Expression Inhibits MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cell Metastasis

Skeletal metastases occur with high incidence in patients with breast cancer and cause long-term skeletal morbidity. Osteonectin (SPARC, BM-40) is a bone matrix factor that is an in vitro chemoattractant for breast and prostate cancer cells. Increased expression of osteonectin is found in malignant breast tumors. We infected MDA-231 breast cancer cells with an adenovirus expressing osteonectin to examine the role of osteonectin expression in breast cancer cells and its effect on metastasis, in particular to bone. Expression of osteonectin did not affect MDA-231 cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, cell aggregation, or protease cleavage of collagen IV. However, in vitro invasion of these osteonectin-infected cells through Matrigel and colony formation on Matrigel was decreased. Interestingly, high osteonectin expression in MDA-231 cells inhibited metastasis in a dose-dependent manner to many different organs including bone. The reduction in metastasis may be due to decreased platelet-tumor cell aggregation, because exogenous osteonectin inhibited platelet aggregation in vitro and the high osteonectin expression in MDA-231 cells reduced tumor cell-induced thrombocytopenia in vivo compared with control-infected cells. These studies suggest that high endogenous expression of osteonectin in breast cancer cells may reduce metastasis via reduced invasive activity and reduced tumor cell-platelet aggregation.

Differential regulation of membrane type 1-matrix metalloproteinase activity by ERK 1/2- and p38 MAPK-modulated tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 2 expression controls transforming growth factor-beta1-induced pericellular collagenolysis

Acquisition of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) activity is temporally associated with increased migration and invasiveness of cancer cells. ProMMP-2 activation requires multimolecular complex assembly involving proMMP-2, membrane type 1-MMP (MT1-MMP, MMP-14), and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2). Because transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) promotes tumor invasion in advanced squamous cell carcinomas, the role of TGF-beta1 in the regulation of MMP activity in a cellular model of invasive oral squamous cell carcinoma was examined. Treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells with TGF-beta1 promoted MMP-dependent cell scattering and collagen invasion, increased expression of MMP-2 and MT1-MMP, and enhanced MMP-2 activation. TGF-beta1 induced concomitant activation of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK, and kinase inhibition studies revealed a negative regulatory role for ERK1/2 in modulating acquisition of MMP-2 activity. Thus, a reciprocal effect on proMMP-2 activation was observed whereupon blocking ERK1/2 phosphorylation promoted proMMP-2 activation and MT1-MMP activity, whereas inhibiting p38 MAPK activity decreased proteolytic potential. The cellular mechanism for the control of MT1-MMP catalytic activity involved concurrent reciprocal modulation of TIMP-2 expression by ERK1/2 and p38 MAPKs, such that inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation decreased TIMP-2 production, and down-regulation of p38 MAPK activity enhanced TIMP-2 synthesis. Further, p38 MAPK inhibition promoted ERK1/2 phosphorylation, providing additional evidence for cross-talk between MAPK pathways. These observations demonstrate the complex reciprocal effects of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK in the regulation of MMP activity, which could complicate the use of MAPK-specific inhibitors as therapeutic agents to down-regulate the biologic effects of TGF-beta1 on pericellular collagen degradation and tumor invasion.

Interaction of human breast fibroblasts with collagen I increases secretion of procathepsin B

Interactions of stromal and tumor cells with the extracellular matrix may regulate expression of proteases including the lysosomal proteases cathepsins B and D. In the present study, we determined whether the expression of these two proteases in human breast fibroblasts was modulated by interactions with the extracellular matrix component, collagen I. Breast fibroblasts were isolated from non-malignant breast tissue as well as from tissue surrounding malignant human breast tumors. Growth of these fibroblasts on collagen I gels affected cell morphology, but not the intracellular localization of vesicles staining for cathepsin B or D. Cathepsins B and D levels (mRNA or intracellular protein) were not affected in fibroblasts growing on collagen I gels or plastic, nor was cathepsin D secreted from these cells. In contrast, protein expression and secretion of cathepsin B, primarily procathepsin B, was induced by growth on collagen I gels. The induced secretion appeared to be mediated by integrins binding to collagen I, as inhibitory antibodies against alpha(1), alpha(2), and beta(1) integrin subunits prevented procathepsin B secretion from fibroblasts grown on collagen. In addition, procathepsin B secretion was induced when cells were plated on beta(1) integrin antibodies. To our knowledge, this is the first examination of cathepsin B and D expression and localization in human breast fibroblasts and their regulation by a matrix protein. Secretion of the cysteine protease procathepsin B from breast fibroblasts may have physiological and pathological consequences, as proteases are required for normal development and for lactation of the mammary gland, yet can also initiate and accelerate the progression of breast cancer.

Unraveling the role of proteases in cancer

Investigators have been studying the expression and activity of proteases in the final steps of tumor progression, invasion and metastasis, for the past 30 years. Recent studies, however, indicate that proteases are involved earlier in progression, e.g., in tumor growth both at the primary and metastatic sites. Extracellular proteases may co-operatively influence matrix degradation and tumor cell invasion through proteolytic cascades, with individual proteases having distinct roles in tumor growth, invasion, migration and angiogenesis. In this review, we use cathepsin B as an example to examine the involvement of proteases in tumor progression and metastasis. We discuss the effect of interactions among tumor cells, stromal cells, and the extracellular matrix on the regulation of protease expression. Further elucidation of the role of proteases in cancer will allow us to design more effective inhibitors and novel protease-based drugs for clinical use.

Tumor cell membrane cathepsin B

The lysosomal cysteine peptidase cathepsin B was found to be associated with plasma membrane/endosomal fractions of murine B16 amelanotic melanoma cells. Confocal microscopy with three dimensional image analysis indicated that cathepsin B was associated with the external basal cell surface, which would be consistent with its proposed role in degradation of extracellular matrix proteins. We purified and partially characterized cathepsin B from homogenates of murine liver and B16 amelanotic melanoma cells and from lysosomal and membrane/endosomal fractions of the B16 tumor cells. By SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions, the purified cathepsin B from the tumor homogenates was resolved as a single protein band of Mr 31000, corresponding to the single chain form of cathepsin B. In contrast, cathepsin B from liver homogenates was resolved as two bands of Mr 31000 and 24000, corresponding to the single chain and the heavy chain of the double chain form, respectively. The tumor cathepsin B consisted of four isozymes with pIs of 5.64, 5.33, 5.2 and 5.1, whereas the liver cathepsin B consisted of five isozymes with pIs of 5.64, 5.5, 5.45, 5.35 and 5.3. The additional acidic isoforms of cathepsin B in the B16 tumor probably reflect altered glycosylation in tumors. The commonality of isoforms in the B16 plasma membrane/endosomal and lysosomal fractions suggests that retrograde trafficking of cathepsin B from the lysosome to the endosome and its exocytotic release result in the association of cathepsin B with the tumor cell membrane.