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Ruiz EJ, Lan L, Diefenbacher ME, Riising EM, Da Costa C, Chakraborty A, Hoeck JD, Spencer-Dene B, Kelly G, David JP, Nye E, Downward J, Behrens A. JunD, not c-Jun, is the AP-1 transcription factor required for Ras-induced lung cancer. JCI Insight 2021; 6:e124985. [PMID: 34236045 PMCID: PMC8410048 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.124985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The AP-1 transcription factor c-Jun is required for Ras-driven tumorigenesis in many tissues and is considered as a classical proto-oncogene. To determine the requirement for c-Jun in a mouse model of K-RasG12D-induced lung adenocarcinoma, we inducibly deleted c-Jun in the adult lung. Surprisingly, we found that inactivation of c-Jun, or mutation of its JNK phosphorylation sites, actually increased lung tumor burden. Mechanistically, we found that protein levels of the Jun family member JunD were increased in the absence of c-Jun. In c-Jun-deficient cells, JunD phosphorylation was increased, and expression of a dominant-active JNKK2-JNK1 transgene further increased lung tumor formation. Strikingly, deletion of JunD completely abolished Ras-driven lung tumorigenesis. This work identifies JunD, not c-Jun, as the crucial substrate of JNK signaling and oncogene required for Ras-induced lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Gavin Kelly
- Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Pierre David
- Institute of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center, Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Emma Nye
- Experimental Histopathology, and
| | - Julian Downward
- Oncogene Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Axel Behrens
- Adult Stem Cell Laboratory.,Cancer Stem Cell Laboratory, Institute of Cancer Research, London, United Kingdom.,Imperial College, Division of Cancer, Department of Surgery and Cancer, London, United Kingdom.,Convergence Science Centre, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
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2
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Clemens Z, Sivakumar S, Pius A, Sahu A, Shinde S, Mamiya H, Luketich N, Cui J, Dixit P, Hoeck JD, Kreuz S, Franti M, Barchowsky A, Ambrosio F. The biphasic and age-dependent impact of klotho on hallmarks of aging and skeletal muscle function. eLife 2021; 10:e61138. [PMID: 33876724 PMCID: PMC8118657 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is accompanied by disrupted information flow, resulting from accumulation of molecular mistakes. These mistakes ultimately give rise to debilitating disorders including skeletal muscle wasting, or sarcopenia. To derive a global metric of growing 'disorderliness' of aging muscle, we employed a statistical physics approach to estimate the state parameter, entropy, as a function of genes associated with hallmarks of aging. Escalating network entropy reached an inflection point at old age, while structural and functional alterations progressed into oldest-old age. To probe the potential for restoration of molecular 'order' and reversal of the sarcopenic phenotype, we systemically overexpressed the longevity protein, Klotho, via AAV. Klotho overexpression modulated genes representing all hallmarks of aging in old and oldest-old mice, but pathway enrichment revealed directions of changes were, for many genes, age-dependent. Functional improvements were also age-dependent. Klotho improved strength in old mice, but failed to induce benefits beyond the entropic tipping point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Clemens
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Sruthi Sivakumar
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Abish Pius
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
- Department of Computational & Systems Biology, School of Medicine, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Amrita Sahu
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Sunita Shinde
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Hikaru Mamiya
- Department of Bioengineering, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Nathaniel Luketich
- Department of Bioengineering, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Jian Cui
- Department of Computational & Systems Biology, School of Medicine, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Purushottam Dixit
- Department of Physics, University of FloridaGainesvilleUnited States
| | - Joerg D Hoeck
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Regenerative Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, IncRheinGermany
| | - Sebastian Kreuz
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Regenerative Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, IncRheinGermany
| | - Michael Franti
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Regenerative Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, IncRheinGermany
| | - Aaron Barchowsky
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
| | - Fabrisia Ambrosio
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of PittsburghPittsburghUnited States
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3
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Cheikhi A, Barchowsky A, Sahu A, Shinde SN, Pius A, Clemens ZJ, Li H, Kennedy CA, Hoeck JD, Franti M, Ambrosio F. Klotho: An Elephant in Aging Research. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2020; 74:1031-1042. [PMID: 30843026 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glz061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The year 2017 marked the 20th anniversary of the first publication describing Klotho. This single protein was and is remarkable in that its absence in mice conferred an accelerated aging, or progeroid, phenotype with a dramatically shortened life span. On the other hand, genetic overexpression extended both health span and life span by an impressive 30%. Not only has Klotho deficiency been linked to a number of debilitating age-related illnesses but many subsequent reports have lent credence to the idea that Klotho can compress the period of morbidity and extend the life span of both model organisms and humans. This suggests that Klotho functions as an integrator of organ systems, making it both a promising tool for advancing our understanding of the biology of aging and an intriguing target for interventional studies. In this review, we highlight advances in our understanding of Klotho as well as key challenges that have somewhat limited our view, and thus translational potential, of this potent protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Cheikhi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh.,Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Aaron Barchowsky
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Amrita Sahu
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh.,Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Sunita N Shinde
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Abish Pius
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Zachary J Clemens
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Hua Li
- Department of Biotherapeutics Discovery, Research Division, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Ridgefield, Connecticut
| | - Charles A Kennedy
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Regenerative Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Ridgefield, Connecticut
| | - Joerg D Hoeck
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Regenerative Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Ridgefield, Connecticut
| | - Michael Franti
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Regenerative Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Ridgefield, Connecticut
| | - Fabrisia Ambrosio
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh.,Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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4
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Feng Y, Qiu WL, Yu XX, Zhang Y, He MY, Li LC, Yang L, Zhang W, Franti M, Ye J, Hoeck JD, Xu CR. Characterizing pancreatic β-cell heterogeneity in the streptozotocin model by single-cell transcriptomic analysis. Mol Metab 2020; 37:100982. [PMID: 32247924 PMCID: PMC7184252 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2020.100982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The streptozotocin (STZ) model is widely used in diabetes research. However, the cellular and molecular states of pancreatic endocrine cells in this model remain unclear. This study explored the molecular characteristics of islet cells treated with STZ and re-evaluated β-cell dysfunction and regeneration in the STZ model. Methods We performed single-cell RNA sequencing of pancreatic endocrine cells from STZ-treated mice. High-quality sequencing data from 2,999 cells were used to identify clusters via Louvain clustering analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA), t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE), uniform manifold approximation and projection (UMAP), force-directed layout (FDL), and differential expression analysis were used to define the heterogeneity and transcriptomic changes in islet cells. In addition, qPCR and immunofluorescence staining were used to confirm findings from the sequencing data. Results Untreated β-cells were divided into two populations at the transcriptomic level, a large high-Glut2 expression (Glut2high) population and a small low-Glut2 expression (Glut2low) population. At the transcriptomic level, Glut2low β-cells in adult mice did not represent a developmentally immature state, although a fraction of genes associated with β-cell maturation and function were downregulated in Glut2low cells. After a single high-dose STZ treatment, most Glut2high cells were killed, but Glut2low cells survived and over time changed to a distinct cell state. We did not observe conversion of Glut2low to Glut2high β-cells up to 9 months after STZ treatment. In addition, we did not detect transcriptomic changes in the non-β endocrine cells or a direct trans-differentiation pathway from the α-cell lineage to the β-cell lineage in the STZ model. Conclusions We identified the heterogeneity of β-cells in both physiological and pathological conditions. However, we did not observe conversion of Glut2low to Glut2high β-cells, transcriptomic changes in the non-β endocrine cells, or direct trans-differentiation from the α-cell lineage to the β-cell lineage in the STZ model. Our results clearly define the states of islet cells treated with STZ and allow us to re-evaluate the STZ model widely used in diabetes studies. β-cells show heterogeneity in both physiological and pathological conditions. Glut2low β-cells survive from high dose of STZ, but over time change to a distinct cell state. The expression profiles of non-β endocrine cells rarely change in the STZ model. Glut2low β-cells do not represent a developmentally immature state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Feng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; PKU-Tsinghua-NIBS Graduate Program, China
| | - Wei-Lin Qiu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; PKU-Tsinghua-NIBS Graduate Program, China
| | - Xin-Xin Yu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Mao-Yang He
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; PKU-Tsinghua-NIBS Graduate Program, China
| | - Lin-Chen Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Li Yang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China; Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Weiyi Zhang
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Boehringer Ingelheim (China) Investment Co., Beijing, China
| | - Michael Franti
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, CT, USA
| | - Junqing Ye
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Boehringer Ingelheim (China) Investment Co., Beijing, China.
| | - Joerg D Hoeck
- Department of Research Beyond Borders, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, CT, USA.
| | - Cheng-Ran Xu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, College of Life Sciences, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, China.
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5
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Merve A, Zhang X, Pomella N, Acquati S, Hoeck JD, Dumas A, Rosser G, Li Y, Jeyapalan J, Vicenzi S, Fan Q, Yang ZJ, Sabò A, Sheer D, Behrens A, Marino S. Correction to: c-MYC overexpression induces choroid plexus papillomas through a T-cell mediated inflammatory mechanism. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2019; 7:179. [PMID: 31727166 PMCID: PMC6854732 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-019-0835-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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6
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Hegde GV, de la Cruz C, Giltnane JM, Crocker L, Venkatanarayan A, Schaefer G, Dunlap D, Hoeck JD, Piskol R, Gnad F, Modrusan Z, de Sauvage FJ, Siebel CW, Jackson EL. NRG1 is a critical regulator of differentiation in TP63-driven squamous cell carcinoma. eLife 2019; 8:46551. [PMID: 31144617 PMCID: PMC6606022 DOI: 10.7554/elife.46551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) account for the majority of cancer mortalities. Although TP63 is an established lineage-survival oncogene in SCCs, therapeutic strategies have not been developed to target TP63 or it’s downstream effectors. In this study we demonstrate that TP63 directly regulates NRG1 expression in human SCC cell lines and that NRG1 is a critical component of the TP63 transcriptional program. Notably, we show that squamous tumors are dependent NRG1 signaling in vivo, in both genetically engineered mouse models and human xenograft models, and demonstrate that inhibition of NRG1 induces keratinization and terminal squamous differentiation of tumor cells, blocking proliferation and inhibiting tumor growth. Together, our findings identify a lineage-specific function of NRG1 in SCCs of diverse anatomic origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganapati V Hegde
- Discovery Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | - Cecile de la Cruz
- Translational Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | | | - Lisa Crocker
- Translational Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | | | - Gabriele Schaefer
- Translational Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | - Debra Dunlap
- Pathology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | - Joerg D Hoeck
- Molecular Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | - Robert Piskol
- Bioinformatics, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | - Florian Gnad
- Bioinformatics, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | - Zora Modrusan
- Molecular Biology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
| | | | | | - Erica L Jackson
- Discovery Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, United States
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7
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Merve A, Zhang X, Pomella N, Acquati S, Hoeck JD, Dumas A, Rosser G, Li Y, Jeyapalan J, Vicenzi S, Fan Q, Yang ZJ, Sabò A, Sheer D, Behrens A, Marino S. c-MYC overexpression induces choroid plexus papillomas through a T-cell mediated inflammatory mechanism. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2019; 7:95. [PMID: 31142360 PMCID: PMC6540455 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-019-0739-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Choroid plexus tumours (CPTs) account for 2–5% of brain tumours in children. They can spread along the neuraxis and can recur after treatment. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying their formation and only few high fidelity mouse models of p53-deficient malignant CPTs are available. We show here that c-MYC overexpression in the choroid plexus epithelium induces T-cell inflammation-dependent choroid plexus papillomas in a mouse model. We demonstrate that c-MYC is expressed in a substantial proportion of human choroid plexus tumours and that this subgroup of tumours is characterised by an inflammatory transcriptome and significant inflammatory infiltrates. In compound mutant mice, overexpression of c-MYC in an immunodeficient background led to a decreased incidence of CPP and reduced tumour bulk. Finally, reduced tumour size was also observed upon T-cell depletion in CPP-bearing mice. Our data raise the possibility that benign choroid plexus tumours expressing c-MYC could be amenable to medical therapy with anti-inflammatory drugs.
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8
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Xu D, Yao M, Wang Y, Yuan L, Hoeck JD, Yu J, Liu L, Yeap YYC, Zhang W, Zhang F, Feng Y, Ma T, Wang Y, Ng DCH, Niu X, Su B, Behrens A, Xu Z. MEKK3 coordinates with FBW7 to regulate WDR62 stability and neurogenesis. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2006613. [PMID: 30566428 PMCID: PMC6347294 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations of WD repeat domain 62 (WDR62) lead to autosomal recessive primary microcephaly (MCPH), and down-regulation of WDR62 expression causes the loss of neural progenitor cells (NPCs). However, how WDR62 is regulated and hence controls neurogenesis and brain size remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 3 (MEKK3) forms a complex with WDR62 to promote c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling synergistically in the control of neurogenesis. The deletion of Mekk3, Wdr62, or Jnk1 resulted in phenocopied defects, including premature NPC differentiation. We further showed that WDR62 protein is positively regulated by MEKK3 and JNK1 in the developing brain and that the defects of wdr62 deficiency can be rescued by the transgenic expression of JNK1. Meanwhile, WDR62 is also negatively regulated by T1053 phosphorylation, leading to the recruitment of F-box and WD repeat domain-containing protein 7 (FBW7) and proteasomal degradation. Our findings demonstrate that the coordinated reciprocal and bidirectional regulation among MEKK3, FBW7, WDR62, and JNK1, is required for fine-tuned JNK signaling for the control of balanced NPC self-renewal and differentiation during cortical development. Microcephaly is a neural developmental disorder characterized by significantly reduced brain size and variable intellectual disability. WD repeat domain 62 (WDR62) was identified as the second most common gene for autosomal recessive primary microcephaly (MCPH) in human. Here, we studied the underlying regulatory mechanism of WDR62 and the impact on generation of new neurons. We show that mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 3 (Mekk3), Wdr62, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (Jnk1) knockout (KO) mice have defects in the generation and maturation of neurons. We demonstrate that WDR62 stability is positively regulated by a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK), MEKK3, but negatively regulated by the E3 ligase, F-box and WD repeat domain-containing protein 7 (FBW7). These positive and negative factors calibrate the strength of the activity of the JNK signaling pathway, which controls self-renewal and differentiation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) during brain development. This finding improves our understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of MCPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Minghui Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yaqing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Yuan
- Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | | | - Jingwen Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yvonne Y. C. Yeap
- School of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Weiya Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yinghang Feng
- Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
| | - Tiantian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yujie Wang
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Dominic C. H. Ng
- School of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Xiaoyin Niu
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Bing Su
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Axel Behrens
- Adult Stem Cell Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Guy’s Campus, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (ZX); (AB)
| | - Zhiheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
- Parkinson’s Disease Center, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (ZX); (AB)
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