Chronic high-fat feeding and prolonged fasting in liver-specific ANGPTL4 knockout mice

Obesity is associated with dyslipidemia, ectopic lipid deposition, and insulin resistance. In mice, the global or adipose-specific loss of function of the protein angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) leads to decreased plasma triglyceride levels, enhanced adipose triglyceride uptake, and protection from high-fat diet (HFD)-induced glucose intolerance. ANGPTL4 is also expressed highly in the liver, but the role of liver-derived ANGPTL4 is unclear. The goal of this study was to determine the contribution of hepatocyte ANGPTL4 to triglyceride and glucose homeostasis in mice during a high-fat diet challenge. We generated hepatocyte-specific ANGPTL4 deficient (Angptl4^LivKO) mice, fed them a 60% kcal/fat diet (HFD) for 6 mo and assessed triglyceride, liver, and glucose metabolic phenotypes. We also explored the effects of prolonged fasting on Angptl4^LivKO mice. The loss of hepatocyte-derived ANGPTL4 led to no major changes in triglyceride partitioning or lipoprotein lipase activity compared with control mice. Interestingly, although there was no difference in fasting plasma triglyceride levels after a 6 h fast, after an 18-h fast, normal chow diet-fed Angptl4^LivKO mice had lower triglyceride levels than control mice. On a HFD, Angptl4^LivKO mice initially showed no difference in glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, but improved glucose tolerance emerged in these mice after 6 mo on HFD. Our data suggest that hepatocyte ANGPTL4 does not directly regulate triglyceride partitioning, but that loss of liver-derived ANGPTL4 may be protective from HFD-induced glucose intolerance and influence plasma triglyceride (TG) metabolism during prolonged fasting.NEW & NOTEWORTHY1) Angiopoietin-like 4 deficiency in hepatocytes (Angptl4^LivKO) does not improve triglyceride phenotypes during high-fat feeding. 2) Angptl4^LivKO mice have improved glucose tolerance after chronic high-fat diet. 3) Angptl4^LivKO mice have decreased fasting plasma triglyceride levels after an 18-h fast, but not after a 6-h fast.

Aging and plasma triglyceride metabolism

The risk for metabolic disease, including metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and diabetes, increases with age. Altered plasma TG metabolism and changes in fatty acid partitioning are also major contributors to metabolic disease. Plasma TG metabolism itself is altered by age in humans and rodents. As discussed in this review, the age-induced changes in human TG metabolism include increased plasma TG levels, reduced postprandial plasma TG clearance rates, reduced postheparin LPL activity, decreased adipose tissue lipolysis, and elevated ectopic fat deposition, all of which could potentially contribute to age-associated metabolic diseases. Similar observations have been made in aged rats. We highlight the limitations of currently available data and propose that mechanistic studies are needed to understand the extent to which age-induced alterations in TG metabolism contribute to metabolic disease. Such mechanistic insights could aid in therapeutic strategies for preventing or managing metabolic disease in older individuals.

Obesity Reduces Maternal Blood Triglyceride Concentrations by Reducing Angiopoietin-Like Protein 4 Expression in Mice

To ensure fetal lipid supply, maternal blood triglyceride (TG) concentrations are robustly elevated during pregnancy. Interestingly, a lower increase in maternal blood TG concentrations has been observed in some obese mothers. We have shown that high-fat (HF) feeding during pregnancy significantly reduces maternal blood TG levels. Therefore, we performed this study to investigate if and how obesity alters maternal blood TG levels. Maternal obesity was established by prepregnant HF (ppHF) feeding, which avoided the dietary effect during pregnancy. We found not only that maternal blood TG concentrations in ppHF dams were remarkably lower than in control dams but also that the TG peak occurred earlier during gestation. Hepatic TG production and intestinal TG absorption were unchanged in ppHF dams, but systemic lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity was increased, suggesting that increased blood TG clearance contributes to the decreased blood TG concentrations in ppHF dams. Although significantly higher levels of UCP1 protein were observed in interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) of ppHF dams, Ucp1 gene deletion did not restore blood TG concentrations in ppHF dams. Expression of the angiopoietin-like protein 4 (ANGPTL4), a potent endogenous LPL inhibitor, was significantly increased during pregnancy. However, the pregnancy-induced elevation of blood TG was almost abolished in Angptl4 ^-/- dams. Compared with control dams, Angptl4 mRNA levels were significantly lower in iBAT, gonadal white adipose tissue, and livers of ppHF dams. Importantly, ectopic overexpression of ANGPTL4 restored maternal blood TG concentrations in ppHF dams. Together, these results indicate that ANGPTL4 plays a vital role in increasing maternal blood TG concentrations during pregnancy. Obesity impairs the rise of maternal blood TG concentrations by reducing ANGPTL4 expression in mice.

Stress-Induced Cyclin C Translocation Regulates Cardiac Mitochondrial Dynamics

Background Nuclear-to-mitochondrial communication regulating gene expression and mitochondrial function is a critical process following cardiac ischemic injury. In this study, we determined that cyclin C, a component of the Mediator complex, regulates cardiac and mitochondrial function in part by modifying mitochondrial fission. We tested the hypothesis that cyclin C functions as a transcriptional cofactor in the nucleus and a signaling molecule stimulating mitochondrial fission in response to stimuli such as cardiac ischemia. Methods and Results We utilized gain- and loss-of-function mouse models in which the CCNC (cyclin C) gene was constitutively expressed (transgenic, CycC cTg) or deleted (knockout, CycC cKO) in cardiomyocytes. The knockout and transgenic mice exhibited decreased cardiac function and altered mitochondria morphology. The hearts of knockout mice had enlarged mitochondria with increased length and area, whereas mitochondria from the hearts of transgenic mice were significantly smaller, demonstrating a role for cyclin C in regulating mitochondrial dynamics in vivo. Hearts from knockout mice displayed altered gene transcription and metabolic function, suggesting that cyclin C is essential for maintaining normal cardiac function. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed that cyclin C translocates to the cytoplasm, enhancing mitochondria fission following stress. We demonstrated that cyclin C interacts with Cdk1 (cyclin-dependent kinase 1) in vivo following ischemia/reperfusion injury and that, consequently, pretreatment with a Cdk1 inhibitor results in reduced mitochondrial fission. This finding suggests a potential therapeutic target to regulate mitochondrial dynamics in response to stress. Conclusions Our study revealed that cyclin C acts as a nuclear-to-mitochondrial signaling factor that regulates both cardiac hypertrophic gene expression and mitochondrial fission. This finding provides new insights into the regulation of cardiac energy metabolism following acute ischemic injury.

Disruption of cardiac Med1 inhibits RNA polymerase II promoter occupancy and promotes chromatin remodeling

The Mediator coactivator complex directs gene-specific expression by binding distal enhancer-bound transcription factors through its Med1 subunit while bridging to RNA polymerase II (Pol II) at gene promoters. In addition, Mediator scaffolds epigenetic modifying enzymes that determine local DNA accessibility. Previously, we found that deletion of Med1 in cardiomyocytes deregulates more than 5,000 genes and promotes acute heart failure. Therefore, we hypothesized that Med1 deficiency disrupts enhancer-promoter coupling. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation-coupled deep sequencing (ChIP-seq; n = 3/ChIP assay), we found that the Pol II pausing index is increased in Med1 knockout versus floxed control mouse hearts primarily due to a decrease in Pol II occupancy at the majority of transcriptional start sites without a corresponding increase in elongating species. Parallel ChIP-seq assays reveal that Med1-dependent gene expression correlates strongly with histone H3 K27 acetylation, which is indicative of open and active chromatin at transcriptional start sites, whereas H3 K27 trimethylated levels, representing condensed and repressed DNA, are broadly increased and inversely correlate with absolute expression levels. Furthermore, Med1 deletion leads to dynamic changes in acetyl-K27 associated superenhancer regions and their enriched transcription factor-binding motifs that are consistent with altered gene expression. Our findings suggest that Med1 is important in establishing enhancer-promoter coupling in the heart and supports the proposed role of Mediator in establishing preinitiation complex formation. We also found that Med1 determines chromatin accessibility within genes and enhancer regions and propose that the composition of transcription factors associated with superenhancer changes to direct gene-specific expression. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Based on our previous findings that transcriptional homeostasis and cardiac function are disturbed by cardiomyocyte deletion of the Mediator coactivator Med1 subunit, we investigated potential underlying changes in RNA polymerase II localization and global chromatin accessibility. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing, we found that disrupted transcription arises from a deficit in RNA polymerase II recruitment to gene promoters. Furthermore, active versus repressive chromatin marks are redistributed within gene loci and at enhancer regions correlated with gene expression changes.

Abstract P188: Adipose-Specific Deletion of Angiopoietin-like 4 Protects Against High Fat Diet Induced Dyslipidemia

Hypertriglyceridemia is a risk factor for the development of hypertension and diabetes. Plasma triglycerides (TGs) are hydrolyzed by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) to release free fatty acids for uptake into tissues. A circulating inhibitor of LPL is angiopoietin-like 4 (A4). A4 is expressed in liver and adipose and is present in circulation. In both humans and mice, A4 deficiency reduces plasma TGs. We previously reported that A4 deficient mice clear more TGs from plasma to adipose tissue. However, it is not clear if this effect is mediated by circulating ANGPTL4 or from local, adipose-derived A4. In this study we sought to characterize the effects of adipose- or liver-specific deletion of A4 on lipid homeostasis. Liver-specific or adipose-specific A4 knockout mice (A4-LivKO/AdipoKO) were generated by crossing A4 floxed mice (A4-fl/fl) with albumin-cre mice or adiponectin-cre mice, respectively. At 8 weeks of age, mice were randomized to either a normal chow diet (NCD) or a high fat diet (60% fat/kCal) for 12 weeks. TG levels (mg/dL) were significantly decreased in A4-AdipoKO mice at baseline (90±4) vs. A4-fl/fl (132±5). No differences were seen in A4-LivKO vs. A4-fl/fl mice (132±3 vs 130±4). After 12 weeks on diets, the A4-AdipoKO mice on NCD (92±6) and HFD (73±6) maintained lower plasma TG levels than A4-fl/fl mice (145±12) on NCD. No differences were seen in TG levels between A4-LivKO mice on HFD or NCD compared to A4-fl/fl mice. TG uptake was increased into adipose tissue of HFD fed A4-AdipoKO [(%-injected dose/mg tissue) (epididymal (eWAT) 0.82± 0.2 and brown adipose tissue (BAT) 1.74± 0.6)] compared to floxed controls on HFD (eWAT 0.44± 0.3 and BAT 0.93± 0.9). Liver-specific loss of ANGPTL4 had no differences in TG uptake from floxed controls on HFD. Overall, we anticipate that identifying tissue-specific contributions will be valuable in informing therapeutic approaches for treating hypertriglyceridemia.

Ectopic expression of Cdk8 induces eccentric hypertrophy and heart failure

Widespread changes in cardiac gene expression occur during heart failure, yet the mechanisms responsible for coordinating these changes remain poorly understood. The Mediator complex represents a nodal point for modulating transcription by bridging chromatin-bound transcription factors with RNA polymerase II activity; it is reversibly regulated by its cyclin-dependent kinase 8 (Cdk8) kinase submodule. Here, we identified increased Cdk8 protein expression in human failing heart explants and determined the consequence of this increase in cardiac-specific Cdk8-expressing mice. Transgenic Cdk8 overexpression resulted in progressive dilated cardiomyopathy, heart failure, and premature lethality. Prior to functional decline, left ventricular cardiomyocytes were dramatically elongated, with disorganized transverse tubules and dysfunctional calcium handling. RNA sequencing results showed that myofilament gene isoforms not typically expressed in adult cardiomyocytes were enriched, while oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid biosynthesis genes were downregulated. Interestingly, candidate upstream transcription factor expression levels and MAPK signaling pathways thought to determine cardiomyocyte size remained relatively unaffected, suggesting that Cdk8 functions within a novel growth regulatory pathway. Our findings show that manipulating cardiac gene expression through increased Cdk8 levels is detrimental to the heart by establishing a transcriptional program that induces pathological remodeling and eccentric hypertrophy culminating in heart failure.

Cardiac Med1 deletion promotes early lethality, cardiac remodeling, and transcriptional reprogramming

The mediator complex, a multisubunit nuclear complex, plays an integral role in regulating gene expression by acting as a bridge between transcription factors and RNA polymerase II. Genetic deletion of mediator subunit 1 (Med1) results in embryonic lethality, due in large part to impaired cardiac development. We first established that Med1 is dynamically expressed in cardiac development and disease, with marked upregulation of Med1 in both human and murine failing hearts. To determine if Med1 deficiency protects against cardiac stress, we generated two cardiac-specific Med1 knockout mouse models in which Med1 is conditionally deleted (Med1cKO mice) or inducibly deleted in adult mice (Med1cKO-MCM mice). In both models, cardiac deletion of Med1 resulted in early lethality accompanied by pronounced changes in cardiac function, including left ventricular dilation, decreased ejection fraction, and pathological structural remodeling. We next defined how Med1 deficiency alters the cardiac transcriptional profile using RNA-sequencing analysis. Med1cKO mice demonstrated significant dysregulation of genes related to cardiac metabolism, in particular genes that are coordinated by the transcription factors Pgc1α, Pparα, and Errα. Consistent with the roles of these transcription factors in regulation of mitochondrial genes, we observed significant alterations in mitochondrial size, mitochondrial gene expression, complex activity, and electron transport chain expression under Med1 deficiency. Taken together, these data identify Med1 as an important regulator of vital cardiac gene expression and maintenance of normal heart function.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Disruption of transcriptional gene expression is a hallmark of dilated cardiomyopathy; however, its etiology is not well understood. Cardiac-specific deletion of the transcriptional coactivator mediator subunit 1 (Med1) results in dilated cardiomyopathy, decreased cardiac function, and lethality. Med1 deletion disrupted cardiac mitochondrial and metabolic gene expression patterns.

Abstract 278: Cardiac Med1 is Necessary for Postnatal Survival in Mice

Alterations in gene transcription are commonly associated with cardiovascular disease pathogenesis characterized by cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. The phenotypic responses result in diminished cardiac contractility, ventricular dilation, fibrosis and ultimately sudden death. The mediator complex is a crucial facilitator of gene transcription; however, few studies have investigated the role of mediator in cardiovascular disease initiation and progression. A key subunit of the Mediator complex, MED1, interacts with nuclear receptors to target gene-specific transcription. To determine the role of MED1 in regulating cardiac function, we generated a heart specific knockout of MED1 (cMED1KO). Postnatal deletion of MED1 in mice results in lethality between 3 to 6 weeks of age. The cMED1KO mice display a marked increase in heart mass compared to floxed controls. Furthermore, echocardiography and histological analysis of hearts taken at 3 weeks showed that the cMED1KO animals had decreased cardiac function, increased fibrosis and a dilated left ventricle. Transcriptional changes were observed for key markers of cardiac disease including MYH7, ANF, ACTIN1. We performed RNAseq analysis to identify changes in the transciptome between cMED1KO and floxed control hearts. The analysis unveiled changes in expression of genes regulating cardiac development, metabolism and function. Taken together these results reveal a critical role for MED1 in postnatal cardiac growth and development due to altered gene expression in adult cardiomyocytes.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress contributes to aortic stiffening via proapoptotic and fibrotic signaling mechanisms

Vascular smooth muscle cell apoptosis and collagen synthesis contribute to aortic stiffening. A cellular signaling mechanism contributing to apoptotic and fibrotic events is endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that induction of ER stress in a normotensive rat would cause profibrotic and apoptotic signaling, thereby contributing to aortic stiffening. Furthermore, we hypothesized that inhibition of ER stress in an angiotensin II (Ang II) model of hypertension would improve aortic stiffening. Induction of ER stress with tunicamycin in normotensive Sprague-Dawley rats (10 μg/kg per day, osmotic pump, 28 days) caused an increase in systolic blood pressure (mm Hg; 160±5) compared with vehicle-treated (127±3) or tunicamycin-treated rats that were cotreated with ER stress inhibitor 4-phenylbutyric acid (100 mg/kg per day, 28 days, [124±6]). There was an increase in aortic apoptosis (fold; 3.0±0.3), collagen content (1.4±0.1), and fibrosis (2.0±0.1) in the tunicamycin-treated rats compared with vehicle-treated rats. Inhibition of ER stress in male Sprague-Dawley rats given Ang II (60 ng/min, osmotic pump, 28 days) and treated with either tauroursodeoxycholic acid or phenylbutyric acid (100 mg/kg per day, i.p., 28 days) led to a 20 mm Hg decrease in blood pressure with either inhibitor compared with Ang II treatment alone. Aortic apoptosis, increased collagen content, and fibrosis in Ang II-treated rats were attenuated with ER stress inhibition. We conclude that ER stress is a new signaling mechanism that contributes to aortic stiffening via promoting apoptosis and fibrosis.

Suppression of endoplasmic reticulum stress improves endothelium-dependent contractile responses in aorta of the spontaneously hypertensive rat

A contributing factor to increased peripheral resistance seen during hypertension is an increased production of endothelium-derived contractile factors (EDCFs). The main EDCFs are vasoconstrictor prostanoids, metabolites of arachidonic acid (AA) produced by Ca(2+)-dependent cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) following phosphorylation (at Ser(505)) mediated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) and cyclooxygenase (COX) activations. Although endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been shown to contribute to pathophysiological alterations in cardiovascular diseases, the relationship between ER stress and EDCF-mediated responses remains unclear. We tested the hypothesis that ER stress plays a role in EDCF-mediated responses via activation of the cPLA2/COX pathway in the aorta of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR). Male SHR and Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) were treated with ER stress inhibitor, tauroursodeoxycholic acid or 4-phenlybutyric acid (TUDCA or PBA, respectively, 100 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) ip) or PBS (control, 300 μl/day ip) for 1 wk. There was a decrease in systolic blood pressure in SHR treated with TUDCA or PBA compared with control SHR (176 ± 3 or 181 ± 5, respectively vs. 200 ± 2 mmHg). In the SHR, treatment with TUDCA or PBA normalized aortic (vs. control SHR) 1) contractions to acetylcholine (ACh), AA, and tert-butyl hydroperoxide, 2) ACh-stimulated releases of prostanoids (thromboxane A2, PGF2α, and prostacyclin), 3) expression of COX-1, 4) phosphorylation of cPLA2 and ERK1/2, and 5) production of H2O2. Our findings demonstrate a novel interplay between ER stress and EDCF-mediated responses in the aorta of the SHR. Moreover, ER stress inhibition normalizes such responses by suppressing the cPLA2/COX pathway.

Abstract 17: Prolonged ER Stress Induced by Angiotensin II-Hypertension Contributes to Aortic Stiffening via an Increase in Pro-apoptotic and Pro-inflammatory Signaling Pathways

Aortic stiffening is an important predictor of negative cardiovascular outcomes and is associated with hypertension. Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a mediator of aortic stiffening via upregulation of pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic signaling pathways, however the mechanisms mediating this upregulation are unclear. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress occurs during cardiovascular diseases, leads to upregulation of pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic pathways and can be induced by Ang II. We hypothesized that ER stress leads to vascular apoptosis and inflammation contributing to increased aortic stiffening during Ang II-induced hypertension. Twelve-week old Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with mini-osmotic pumps containing Ang II (60ng/min/day, 28 days) or received sham surgery and co-treated with ER stress inhibitors, tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) or 4-phenylbutyric acid (PBA) (100mg/kg/day, i.p. 28 days) or saline. Thoracic aorta was used for functional myograph analysis and western blot (data presented as fold change from control ± SEM). Aortic rings from the Ang II saline group had a greater contraction to phenylephrine compared to control (Emax: 33.1±0.7 mN vs 26.8±0.6 mN) which was attenuated by ER stress inhibition (Emax: 23.4±0.4 mN,PBA; 26.05±0.7 mN,TUDCA). ER stress inhibition suppressed NF-κB phosphorylation (1.0±0.4, PBA; 1.3±0.2, TUDCA) compared to Ang II saline group (1.9± 0.4). ER stress inhibition reduced pro-apoptotic protein Bax expression (1.3± 0.7, PBA; 1.8± 0.1, TUDCA) compared to Ang II saline group (2.5±0.7) and increased anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 expression (1.2±0.5, PBA; 1.3±0.4, TUDCA) compared to Ang II saline group (0.6 ±0.2). Collagen type I and type III expression was attenuated with ER stress inhibition (1.5±0.2, PBA; 1.4±0.4, TUDCA and 1.0±0.3, PBA; 0.9±0.4 TUDCA, respectively) compared to Ang II saline group (3.7±0.4 and 1.8±0.3, respectively). These effects were independent of blood pressure changes as ER stress inhibition did not alter systolic blood pressure (163±3 mmHg, PBA; 170±4 mmHg, TUDCA) compared to Ang II saline group (165±4 mmHg). Our data suggest that ER stress is a new mechanism through which Ang II promotes vascular inflammation and apoptosis resulting in increased aortic stiffness.

Neural responses to facial expression and face identity in the monkey amygdala

The amygdala is purported to play an important role in face processing, yet the specificity of its activation to face stimuli and the relative contribution of identity and expression to its activation are unknown. In the current study, neural activity in the amygdala was recorded as monkeys passively viewed images of monkey faces, human faces, and objects on a computer monitor. Comparable proportions of neurons responded selectively to images from each category. Neural responses to monkey faces were further examined to determine whether face identity or facial expression drove the face-selective responses. The majority of these neurons (64%) responded both to identity and facial expression, suggesting that these parameters are processed jointly in the amygdala. Large fractions of neurons, however, showed pure identity-selective or expression-selective responses. Neurons were selective for a particular facial expression by either increasing or decreasing their firing rate compared with the firing rates elicited by the other expressions. Responses to appeasing faces were often marked by significant decreases of firing rates, whereas responses to threatening faces were strongly associated with increased firing rate. Thus global activation in the amygdala might be larger to threatening faces than to neutral or appeasing faces.