1
|
Rüterbusch MJ, Hondowicz BD, Takehara KK, Pruner KB, Griffith TS, Pepper M. Allergen exposure functionally alters influenza-specific CD4+ Th1 memory cells in the lung. J Exp Med 2023; 220:e20230112. [PMID: 37698553 PMCID: PMC10497397 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20230112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4+ lung-resident memory T cells (TRM) generated in response to influenza infection confer effective protection against subsequent viral exposures. Whether these cells can be altered by environmental antigens and cytokines released during heterologous, antigen-independent immune responses is currently unclear. We therefore investigated how influenza-specific CD4+ Th1 TRM in the lung are impacted by a subsequent Th2-inducing respiratory house dust mite (HDM) exposure. Although naïve influenza-specific CD4+ T cells in the lymph nodes do not respond to HDM, influenza-specific CD4+ TRM in the lungs do respond to a subsequent allergen exposure by decreasing expression of the transcription factor T-bet. This functional alteration is associated with decreased IFN-γ production upon restimulation and improved disease outcomes following heterosubtypic influenza challenge. Further investigation revealed that ST2 signaling in CD4+ T cells during allergic challenge is necessary to induce these changes in lung-resident influenza-specific CD4+ TRM. Thus, heterologous antigen exposure or ST2-signaling can drive persistent changes in CD4+ Th1 TRM populations and impact protection upon reinfection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikel J. Rüterbusch
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Brian D. Hondowicz
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kennidy K. Takehara
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kurt B. Pruner
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Thomas S. Griffith
- Department of Urology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology Ph.D. Program, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Marion Pepper
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rodda LB, Morawski PA, Pruner KB, Fahning ML, Howard CA, Franko N, Logue J, Eggenberger J, Stokes C, Golez I, Hale M, Gale M, Chu HY, Campbell DJ, Pepper M. Imprinted SARS-CoV-2-specific memory lymphocytes define hybrid immunity. Cell 2022; 185:1588-1601.e14. [PMID: 35413241 PMCID: PMC8926873 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Immune memory is tailored by cues that lymphocytes perceive during priming. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic created a situation in which nascent memory could be tracked through additional antigen exposures. Both SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination induce multifaceted, functional immune memory, but together, they engender improved protection from disease, termed hybrid immunity. We therefore investigated how vaccine-induced memory is shaped by previous infection. We found that following vaccination, previously infected individuals generated more SARS-CoV-2 RBD-specific memory B cells and variant-neutralizing antibodies and a distinct population of IFN-γ and IL-10-expressing memory SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific CD4+ T cells than previously naive individuals. Although additional vaccination could increase humoral memory in previously naive individuals, it did not recapitulate the distinct CD4+ T cell cytokine profile observed in previously infected subjects. Thus, imprinted features of SARS-CoV-2-specific memory lymphocytes define hybrid immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B Rodda
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Peter A Morawski
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Kurt B Pruner
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Mitchell L Fahning
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Christian A Howard
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Nicholas Franko
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Jennifer Logue
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Julie Eggenberger
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Caleb Stokes
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Inah Golez
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Malika Hale
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Helen Y Chu
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Daniel J Campbell
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Marion Pepper
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
The discovery of CD4+ T cell subset-defining master transcription factors and framing of the Th1/Th2 paradigm ignited the CD4+ T cell field. Advances in in vivo experimental systems, however, have revealed that more complex lineage-defining transcriptional networks direct CD4+ T cell differentiation in the lymphoid organs and tissues. This review focuses on the layers of fate decisions that inform CD4+ T cell differentiation in vivo. Cytokine production by antigen-presenting cells and other innate cells influences the CD4+ T cell effector program [e.g., T helper type 1 (Th1), Th2, Th17]. Signals downstream of the T cell receptor influence whether individual clones bearing hallmarks of this effector program become T follicular helper cells, supporting development of B cells expressing specific antibody isotypes, or T effector cells, which activate microbicidal innate cells in tissues. These bifurcated, parallel axes allow CD4+ T cells to augment their particular effector program and prevent disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikel Ruterbusch
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA; ,
| | - Kurt B Pruner
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA; ,
| | - Laila Shehata
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA; ,
| | - Marion Pepper
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA; ,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pruner KB, Pepper M. Local memory CD4 T cell niches in respiratory viral infection. J Exp Med 2021; 218:212432. [PMID: 34160551 PMCID: PMC8225681 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20201733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory viral infections present a major threat to global health and prosperity. Over the past century, several have developed into crippling pandemics, including the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Although the generation of neutralizing serum antibodies in response to natural immunity and vaccination are considered to be hallmarks of viral immune protection, antibodies from long-lived plasma cells are subject to immune escape from heterologous clades of zoonotic, recombined, or mutated viruses. Local immunity in the lung can be generated through resident memory immune subsets that rapidly respond to secondary infection and protect from heterologous infection. Although many immune cells are required to achieve the phenomenon of resident memory, herein we highlight the pleiotropic functions of CD4 tissue resident memory T cells in the lung and discuss the implications of resident memory for vaccine design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kurt B Pruner
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Marion Pepper
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Rodda LB, Netland J, Shehata L, Pruner KB, Morwaski PA, Thouvenel CD, Takehara KK, Eggenberger J, Hemann EA, Waterman HR, Fahning ML, Chen Y, Hale M, Rathe J, Stokes C, Wrenn S, Fiala B, Carter L, Hamerman JA, King NP, Gale M, Jr., Campbell DJ, Rawlings DJ, Pepper M. Functional SARS-CoV-2-specific immune memory persists after mild COVID-19. The Journal of Immunology 2021. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.206.supp.62.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus is causing a global pandemic, and cases continue to rise. Most infected individuals experience mildly symptomatic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but it is unknown whether this can induce persistent immune memory that could contribute to immunity. We performed a longitudinal assessment of individuals recovered from mild COVID-19 to determine whether they develop and sustain multifaceted SARS-CoV-2-specific immunological memory. Recovered individuals developed SARS-CoV-2-specific immunoglobulin (IgG) antibodies, neutralizing plasma, and memory B and memory T cells that persisted for at least 3 months. Our data further reveal that SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG memory B cells increased over time. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2-specific memory lymphocytes exhibited characteristics associated with potent antiviral function: memory T cells secreted cytokines and expanded upon antigen re-encounter, whereas memory B cells expressed receptors capable of neutralizing virus when expressed as monoclonal antibodies. Therefore, mild COVID-19 elicits memory lymphocytes that persist and display functional hallmarks of antiviral immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Barbara Rodda
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Jason Netland
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Laila Shehata
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Kurt B. Pruner
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Peter A. Morwaski
- 2Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Christopher D. Thouvenel
- 3Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 4Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Kennidy K. Takehara
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Julie Eggenberger
- 5Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Emily A Hemann
- 5Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Hayley R. Waterman
- 2Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Mitchell L. Fahning
- 2Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Yu Chen
- 3Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 4Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Malika Hale
- 3Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 4Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Jennifer Rathe
- 5Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Caleb Stokes
- 5Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Samuel Wrenn
- 6Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
- 7Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Brooke Fiala
- 6Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
- 7Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Lauren Carter
- 6Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
- 7Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Jessica A Hamerman
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 2Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Neil P. King
- 6Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | | | - Jr.
- 5Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Daniel J. Campbell
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 2Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - David J Rawlings
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 3Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- 4Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | - Marion Pepper
- 1Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rodda LB, Netland J, Shehata L, Pruner KB, Morawski PA, Thouvenel CD, Takehara KK, Eggenberger J, Hemann EA, Waterman HR, Fahning ML, Chen Y, Hale M, Rathe J, Stokes C, Wrenn S, Fiala B, Carter L, Hamerman JA, King NP, Gale M, Campbell DJ, Rawlings DJ, Pepper M. Functional SARS-CoV-2-Specific Immune Memory Persists after Mild COVID-19. Cell 2021; 184:169-183.e17. [PMID: 33296701 PMCID: PMC7682481 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 472] [Impact Index Per Article: 157.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus is causing a global pandemic, and cases continue to rise. Most infected individuals experience mildly symptomatic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but it is unknown whether this can induce persistent immune memory that could contribute to immunity. We performed a longitudinal assessment of individuals recovered from mild COVID-19 to determine whether they develop and sustain multifaceted SARS-CoV-2-specific immunological memory. Recovered individuals developed SARS-CoV-2-specific immunoglobulin (IgG) antibodies, neutralizing plasma, and memory B and memory T cells that persisted for at least 3 months. Our data further reveal that SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG memory B cells increased over time. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2-specific memory lymphocytes exhibited characteristics associated with potent antiviral function: memory T cells secreted cytokines and expanded upon antigen re-encounter, whereas memory B cells expressed receptors capable of neutralizing virus when expressed as monoclonal antibodies. Therefore, mild COVID-19 elicits memory lymphocytes that persist and display functional hallmarks of antiviral immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B Rodda
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Jason Netland
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Laila Shehata
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Kurt B Pruner
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Peter A Morawski
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Christopher D Thouvenel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Kennidy K Takehara
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Julie Eggenberger
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Emily A Hemann
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Hayley R Waterman
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Mitchell L Fahning
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Malika Hale
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Jennifer Rathe
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Caleb Stokes
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Samuel Wrenn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA, 98195 and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Brooke Fiala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA, 98195 and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Lauren Carter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA, 98195 and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Jessica A Hamerman
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Neil P King
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA, 98195 and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Daniel J Campbell
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - David J Rawlings
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Marion Pepper
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rodda LB, Netland J, Shehata L, Pruner KB, Morawski PA, Thouvenel C, Takehara KK, Eggenberger J, Hemann E, Waterman HR, Fahning ML, Chen Y, Rathe J, Stokes C, Wrenn S, Fiala B, Carter L, Hamerman JA, King NP, Gale M, Campbell DJ, Rawlings D, Pepper M. Functional SARS-CoV-2-specific immune memory persists after mild COVID-19. Res Sq 2020:rs.3.rs-57112. [PMID: 32818218 PMCID: PMC7430600 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-57112/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The recently emerged SARS-CoV-2 virus is currently causing a global pandemic and cases continue to rise. The majority of infected individuals experience mildly symptomatic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but it is unknown whether this can induce persistent immune memory that might contribute to herd immunity. Thus, we performed a longitudinal assessment of individuals recovered from mildly symptomatic COVID-19 to determine if they develop and sustain immunological memory against the virus. We found that recovered individuals developed SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG antibody and neutralizing plasma, as well as virus-specific memory B and T cells that not only persisted, but in some cases increased numerically over three months following symptom onset. Furthermore, the SARS-CoV-2-specific memory lymphocytes exhibited characteristics associated with potent antiviral immunity: memory T cells secreted IFN-γ and expanded upon antigen re-encounter, while memory B cells expressed receptors capable of neutralizing virus when expressed as antibodies. These findings demonstrate that mild COVID-19 elicits memory lymphocytes that persist and display functional hallmarks associated with antiviral protective immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B. Rodda
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Jason Netland
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Laila Shehata
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Kurt B. Pruner
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Peter A. Morawski
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Chris Thouvenel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA and Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kennidy K. Takehara
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Julie Eggenberger
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Emily Hemann
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Hayley R. Waterman
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mitchell L. Fahning
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA and Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jennifer Rathe
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Caleb Stokes
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Samuel Wrenn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Brooke Fiala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Lauren Carter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica A. Hamerman
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Neil P. King
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA and Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Daniel J. Campbell
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Center for Fundamental Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - David Rawlings
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA and Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Marion Pepper
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|