Ketamine-butorphanol-medetomidine for the immobilisation of free-living hyenas (Crocuta crocuta)

Free-ranging spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are immobilised for a variety of purposes, including wildlife-human conflict mitigation, research, and veterinary treatment. Combinations of tiletamine-zolazepam (Zoletil) and medetomidine are commonly used for immobilisation of hyenas, however, recovery times are long. In this descriptive study, a total of 20 adult or subadult free-ranging hyenas were immobilised near Skukuza in the Kruger National Park using ketamine, butorphanol, and medetomidine. The goal of the study was to evaluate a suitable dose and measure cardiorespiratory effects of this combination. The quality of induction and recovery were scored using an established scoring system from 1 (excellent) to (poor). Twelve of the 20 hyenas were given an induction score of 1 (excellent), five an induction score of 2 (good), and three an induction score of 3 (fair). Of the animals with induction score = 1, the mean drug dose was 1.17 mg/kg ketamine, 0.25 mg/kg butorphanol and 0.03 mg/kg medetomidine, and the mean induction time and time to handling 6:25 minutes and 9:46 minutes respectively. The mean recovery time (from reversal to standing) was 10:16 min, which is shorter than what has been reported for tiletaminezolazepam- based combinations in hyenas. Most hyenas were bradycardic (< 40 beats per minute) and the mean PaO2 69.5 mmHg. Three hyenas, one with induction score = 2, and two with induction scores = 3 spontaneously recovered at 33, 44 and 56 minutes post approach respectively. Regardless of induction time, all hyenas reached a level of surgical anaesthesia while immobilised. Overall, ketamine-butorphanol-medetomidine (KBM) was effective in immobilising hyenas but induction times varied, and animals were bradycardic during immobilisation.

Seroprevalence of Mycobacterium bovis infection in warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) in bovine tuberculosis-endemic regions of South Africa

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), has been reported in many species including suids. Wild boar are important maintenance hosts of the infection with other suids, that is domestic and feral pigs, being important spillover hosts in the Eurasian ecosystem and in South Africa, warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) may play a similar role in M. bovis-endemic areas. However, novel diagnostic tests for warthogs are required to investigate the epidemiology of bTB in this species. Recent studies have demonstrated that serological assays are capable of discriminating between M. bovis-infected and uninfected warthogs (Roos et al., ). In this study, an indirect ELISA utilizing M. bovis purified protein derivative (PPD) as a test antigen was used to measure the prevalence and investigate risk factors associated with infection in warthogs from uMhkuze Nature Reserve and the southern region of the Greater Kruger National Park (GKNP). There was a high overall seroprevalence of 38%, with adult warthogs having a higher risk of infection (46%). Seroprevalence also varied by geographic location with warthogs from Marloth Park in the GKNP having the greatest percentage of positive animals (63%). This study indicates that warthogs in M. bovis-endemic areas are at high risk of becoming infected with mycobacteria. Warthogs might present an under-recognized disease threat in multi-species systems. They might also serve as convenient sentinels for M. bovis in endemic areas. These findings highlight the importance of epidemiological studies in wildlife to understand the role each species plays in disease ecology.

Tuberculosis in Rhinoceros: An Underrecognized Threat?

Historical evidence of tuberculosis (TB) affecting primarily captive rhinoceroses dates back almost two centuries. Although the causative Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) species has not been determined in many cases, especially for those that occurred before bacterial culture techniques were available, the spectrum of documented reports illustrates the importance of TB as cause of morbidity and mortality in different rhinoceros species across continents. In more recent years, sporadic suspected or confirmed cases of TB caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) have been reported in semi-free or free-ranging rhinoceroses in South Africa. However, the true risk TB may pose to the health and conservation of rhinoceros populations in the country's large conservation areas where M. bovis is endemic, which is unknown. Underlying the current knowledge gap is the lack of diagnostic tools available to detect infection in living animals. As documented in other wildlife species, TB could establish itself in a rhinoceros population but remain unrecognized for decades with detrimental implications for wildlife conservation at large and should such animals be moved to uninfected areas or facilities. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge regarding TB in rhinoceros including critical gaps that need to be addressed to effectively assess the threat that this disease may present to rhinoceros.

115 CHARACTERIZING NEUTROPHIL PROFILES IN HORSES FOR RHINOCEROS CAPTURE

Conservation of several African species is becoming essential, and efforts to move threatened animals are causing physiological and reproductive problems. To save these species, a more comprehensive knowledge of their biology and response to stressors is required. Capture stress of rhinoceroses has been quantified (Kruger et al. 2011 Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 23, 181–182) by evaluating leucocyte coping capacity (LCC). LCC is the measurement of the fluorescence of circulating active neutrophils, then expressed as optical density (OD)/1000 neutrophils. The LCC then provides a standardized value between species as we used identical conditions and reagents. To quantify the role of LCC in rhinoceros conservation, it is essential to characterize normal LCC profiles of healthy unstressed rhinoceroses. Horse neutrophils are very similar to rhinoceros neutrophils in their biological activity. The objective of the study was to characterize normal LCC profiles in stallions, geldings, nonpregnant mares, pregnant mares, as well as fillies and colts of various ages as a benchmark for adult and juvenile rhinoceroses. The LCC profiles are shown in Figures 1 to 3. For the colts (days, weeks, and months old) there was little difference in their LCC profile over time. For the fillies (days, weeks, and months old) the LCC response for fillies only days old was significantly (P < 0.05) greater when compared to fillies that were weeks and months old. For the adult horses, the stallions had the lowest overall LCC and were very similar to nonpregnant mares. The LCC of pregnant mares was of significantly (P < 0.5) greater magnitude than that of stallions and nonpregnant mares. The LCC response of gelding was significantly (P < 0.5) greater than that of stallions and nonpregnant mares, but significantly (P < 0.5) lower than that of pregnant mares. The stallion and pregnant mare responses mirrored the quantitative responses of breeding rhinoceros bulls and pregnant rhinoceros cows. From the data (Figure 4) we suggest that breeding males (stallions, elephants, and rhinoceros bulls) have the lowest LCC activity curves, as their breeding activities result in higher daily stresses. We hypothesized that the stressed bulls have their neutrophil activity down regulated by circulating corticosteroids. The converse is true for pregnant females (mares and cows), as they may have more vigorous neutrophils and therefore the highest LCC curves. These basic studies support and validate the role of rapid LCC in stress evaluation of wild caught rhinoceroses and horses could be applicable for captured elephant.

Wildlife tuberculosis in South African conservation areas: Implications and challenges

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, was first diagnosed in African buffalo in South Africa's Kruger National Park in 1990. Over the past 15 years the disease has spread northwards leaving only the most northern buffalo herds unaffected. Evidence suggests that 10 other small and large mammalian species, including large predators, are spillover hosts. Wildlife tuberculosis has also been diagnosed in several adjacent private game reserves and in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, the third largest game reserve in South Africa. The tuberculosis epidemic has a number of implications, for which the full effect of some might only be seen in the long-term. Potential negative long-term effects on the population dynamics of certain social animal species and the direct threat for the survival of endangered species pose particular problems for wildlife conservationists. On the other hand, the risk of spillover infection to neighboring communal cattle raises concerns about human health at the wildlife-livestock-human interface, not only along the western boundary of Kruger National Park, but also with regards to the joint development of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. From an economic point of view, wildlife tuberculosis has resulted in national and international trade restrictions for affected species. The lack of diagnostic tools for most species and the absence of an effective vaccine make it currently impossible to contain and control this disease within an infected free-ranging ecosystem. Veterinary researchers and policy-makers have recognized the need to intensify research on this disease and the need to develop tools for control, initially targeting buffalo and lion.

An innovative approach for locating and evaluating subsurface pathways for nitrogen loss

Fundamental watershed-scale processes governing chemical flux to neighboring ecosystems are so poorly understood that effective strategies for mitigating chemical contamination cannot be formulated. Characterization of evapotranspiration, surface runoff, plant uptake, subsurface preferential flow, behavior of the chemicals in neighboring ecosystems, and an understanding of how crop management practices influence these processes are needed. Adequate characterization of subsurface flow has been especially difficult because conventional sampling methods are ineffective for measuring preferential flow of water and solutes. A sampling strategy based on ground-penetrating radar (GPR) mapping of subsurface structures coupled with near real-time soil moisture data, surface topography, remotely sensed imagery, and a geographic information system (GIS) appears to offer a means of accurately identifying subsurface preferential flow pathways. Four small adjacent watersheds draining into a riparian wetland and first-order stream at the USDA-ARS Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD are being studied with this protocol. The spatial location of some preferential flow pathways for chemicals exiting these agricultural watersheds to the neighboring ecosystems have been identified. Confirmation of the pathways is via examination of patterns in yield monitor data and remote sensing imagery.

Surface and subsurface nitrate flow pathways on a watershed scale

Determining the interaction and impact of surface runoff and subsurface flow processes on the environment has been hindered by our inability to characterize subsurface soil structures on a watershed scale. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) data were collected and evaluated in determining subsurface hydrology at four small watersheds in Beltsville, MD. The watersheds have similar textures, organic matter contents, and yield distributions. Although the surface slope was greater on one of the watersheds, slope alone could not explain why it also had a nitrate runoff flux that was 18 times greater than the other three watersheds. Only with knowledge of the subsurface hydrology could the surface runoff differences be explained. The subsurface hydrology was developed by combining GPR and surface topography in a geographic information system. Discrete subsurface flow pathways were identified and confirmed with color infrared imagery, real-time soil moisture monitoring, and yield monitoring. The discrete subsurface flow patterns were also useful in understanding observed nitrate levels entering the riparian wetland and first order stream. This study demonstrated the impact that subsurface stratigraphy can have on water and nitrate (NO3-N) fluxes exiting agricultural lands, even when soil properties, yield distributions, and climate are similar. Reliable protocols for measuring subsurface fluxes of water and chemicals need to be developed.

Adverse events following vaccination in premature infants

The aims of this study were to study the frequency, severity and types of adverse reactions following DPT/Hib (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis/Haemophilus influenzae type B conjugate) immunization in very preterm infants and to identify possible risk factors. Case notes of 45 preterm babies vaccinated in the neonatal intensive care unit between January 1993 and December 1998 were studied retrospectively. Birthweight, gestational age, duration of ventilation, oxygen dependency, timing of vaccination, weight, corrected gestation at vaccination and apparent adverse effects were noted. Apparent adverse events were noted in 17 of 45 (37.8%) babies: 9 (20%) had major events, i.e. apnoea, bradycardia or desaturations, and 8 (17.8%) had minor events, i.e. increased oxygen requirements, temperature instability, poor handling and feed intolerance. Babies with major events were significantly younger (p < 0.05), had a lower postmenstrual age (p < 0.05) and weighed less (p < 0.05) at the time of vaccination compared with babies without major events. No differences in the mean birthweight, gestational age, duration of ventilation or oxygen dependency were found between the two groups. Age at vaccination of 70 days or less was significantly associated with increased risk (p < 0.01). Of 27 babies vaccinated at 70 days or less, 9 (33.3%) developed major events compared with none when vaccinated over 70 d.

CONCLUSION

Vaccine-related cardiorespiratory events are relatively common in preterm babies. Problems were much more common if vaccine is administered at or before 70 d. These babies should therefore be monitored postvaccination. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify whether delaying vaccination offers protection against these adverse events.

The calcaneum as a site for intraosseous infusion

Intraosseous infusion has been recommended as a rapid and effective form of circulatory access in the collapsed child. Recognised sites for insertion include the tibia, femur, iliac crest, sternum, and clavicle. The case of a 3 year old collapsed child is described who was successfully resuscitated with the use of an intraosseous needle placed in the calcaneum; the method of needle insertion is also detailed.

EEC syndrome and genitourinary anomalies: an update

We report on a large family with the ectrodactyly, ectodermal dysplasia, clefting (EEC) syndrome. The clinical manifestations in this family show great variability. Specific genitourinary anomalies were found. The propositus with micturition problems is discussed in detail. A dysplastic bladder epithelium might be the cause of these problems. A remarkable improvement of the complaints was achieved upon treatment with synthetic sulfonated glycosaminoglycans.

Linear dose-response relationship for DNA adducts in rat liver from chronic exposure to aflatoxin B1

Male F-344 rats were given [3H]aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the drinking water at three exposure levels (0.02, 0.6, 20 micrograms/l, resulting in average dose levels of 2.2, 73, 2110 ng/kg per day). After 4, 6 and 8 weeks, DNA was isolated from the livers and analyzed for aflatoxin-DNA adducts. The level of DNA adducts did not increase significantly after 4 weeks, indicating that a steady-state for adduct formation and removal had nearly been reached. At 8 weeks, the adduct levels were 0.91, 32 and 850 nucleotide-aflatoxin adducts per 10(9) nucleotides, i.e. clearly proportional to the dose. At the high dose level, a near 50% tumor incidence would be expected in a 2-year bioassay with F-344 rats while the low dose used is within the range of estimated human dietary exposures to aflatoxin in Western countries. The proportionality seen between exposure and steady-state DNA adduct level is discussed with respect to a linear extrapolation of the tumor risk to low dose.