1
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Reyes G, King AWT, Koso TV, Penttilä PA, Kosonen H, Rojas OJ. Cellulose dissolution and gelation in NaOH(aq) under controlled CO 2 atmosphere: supramolecular structure and flow properties. Green Chem 2022; 24:8029-8035. [PMID: 36324640 PMCID: PMC9578387 DOI: 10.1039/d2gc02916b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the interplay between cellulose crystallization and aggregation with interfibrillar interactions, shear forces, and the local changes in the medium's acidity. The latter is affected by the CO2 chemisorbed from the surrounding atmosphere, which, combined with shear forces, explain cellulose gelation. Herein, rheology, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), small and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS), and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) are combined to unveil the fundamental factors that limit cellulose gelation and maximize its dissolution in NaOH(aq). The obtained solutions are then proposed for developing green and environmentally friendly cellulose-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Reyes
- Biobased Colloids and Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University FI-00076 Espoo Finland
| | - Alistair W T King
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd Tietotie 4e FI-02150 Espoo Finland
| | - Tetyana V Koso
- Materials Chemistry Division, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki FI-00560 Helsinki Finland
| | - Paavo A Penttilä
- Biobased Materials Structure, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University P.O. Box 16300 FI-00076 Aalto Finland
| | - Harri Kosonen
- UPM Pulp Research and Innovations, UPM Paloasemantie 19 FI-53200 Lappeenranta Finland
| | - Orlando J Rojas
- Biobased Colloids and Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University FI-00076 Espoo Finland
- Bioproducts Institute, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Department of Wood Science, 2360 East Mall, The University of British Columbia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z3 Canada
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2
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Abstract
Understanding nanoscale moisture interactions is fundamental to most applications of wood, including cellulosic nanomaterials with tailored properties. By combining X-ray scattering experiments with molecular simulations and taking advantage of computed scattering, we studied the moisture-induced changes in cellulose microfibril bundles of softwood secondary cell walls. Our models reproduced the most important experimentally observed changes in diffraction peak locations and widths and gave new insights into their interpretation. We found that changes in the packing of microfibrils dominate at moisture contents above 10-15%, whereas deformations in cellulose crystallites take place closer to the dry state. Fibrillar aggregation is a significant source of drying-related changes in the interior of the microfibrils. Our results corroborate the fundamental role of nanoscale phenomena in the swelling behavior and properties of wood-based materials and promote their utilization in nanomaterials development. Simulation-assisted scattering analysis proved an efficient tool for advancing the nanoscale characterization of cellulosic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Paajanen
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Aleksi Zitting
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Aalto, Espoo, Finland
| | - Lauri Rautkari
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Aalto, Espoo, Finland
| | - Jukka A. Ketoja
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Paavo A. Penttilä
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Aalto, Espoo, Finland
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3
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Figueiredo P, Lahtinen MH, Agustin MB, de Carvalho DM, Hirvonen S, Penttilä PA, Mikkonen KS. Green Fabrication Approaches of Lignin Nanoparticles from Different Technical Lignins: A Comparison Study. ChemSusChem 2021; 14:4718-4730. [PMID: 34398512 PMCID: PMC8596756 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202101356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The production of lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) has emerged as a way to overcome the highly variable and complex molecular structure of lignin. It can offer morphological control of the lignin polymer, allowing the formation of stable LNP dispersions in aqueous media, while increasing the potential of lignin for high-value applications. However, the polydispersity and morphology of LNPs varies depending on the lignin grade and preparation method, and a systematic comparison using different technical lignins is lacking. In this study, it was attempted to find a green fabrication method with a distinct solvent fractionation of lignin to prepare LNPs using three different technical lignins as starting polymers: BLN birch lignin (hardwood, BB), alkali Protobind 1000 (grass, PB), and kraft LignoBoost (softwood, LB). For that, three anti-solvent precipitation approaches to prepare LNPs were systematically compared: 70 % aqueous ethanol, acetone/water (3 : 1) and NaOH as the lignin solvent, and water/aqueous HCl as the anti-solvent. Among all these methods, the acetone/water (3 : 1) approach allowed production of homogeneous and monodisperse LNPs with a negative surface charge and also spherical and smooth surfaces. Overall, the results revealed that the acetone/water (3 : 1) method was the most effective approach tested to obtain homogenous, small, and spherical LNPs from the three technical lignins. These LNPs exhibited an improved stability at different ionic strengths and a wider pH range compared to the other preparation methods, which can greatly increase their application in many fields, such as pharmaceutical and food sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Figueiredo
- Department of Food and NutritionFaculty of Agriculture and ForestryUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 6600014HelsinkiFinland
| | - Maarit H. Lahtinen
- Department of Food and NutritionFaculty of Agriculture and ForestryUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 6600014HelsinkiFinland
| | - Melissa B. Agustin
- Department of Food and NutritionFaculty of Agriculture and ForestryUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 6600014HelsinkiFinland
| | - Danila Morais de Carvalho
- Department of Food and NutritionFaculty of Agriculture and ForestryUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 6600014HelsinkiFinland
| | - Sami‐Pekka Hirvonen
- Department of ChemistryFaculty of ScienceUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 5500014HelsinkiFinland
| | - Paavo A. Penttilä
- Department of Bioproducts and BiosystemsAalto UniversityP.O. Box 1630000076AaltoFinland
| | - Kirsi S. Mikkonen
- Department of Food and NutritionFaculty of Agriculture and ForestryUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 6600014HelsinkiFinland
- Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science (HELSUS)University of HelsinkiP.O. Box 6500014HelsinkiFinland
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4
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Solala I, Driemeier C, Mautner A, Penttilä PA, Seitsonen J, Leppänen M, Mihhels K, Kontturi E. Directed Assembly of Cellulose Nanocrystals in Their Native Solid-State Template of a Processed Fiber Cell Wall. Macromol Rapid Commun 2021; 42:e2100092. [PMID: 33955068 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticle assembly is intensely surveyed because of the numerous applications within fields such as catalysis, batteries, and biomedicine. Here, directed assembly of rod-like, biologically derived cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) within the template of a processed cotton fiber cell wall, that is, the native origin of CNCs, is reported. It is a system where the assembly takes place in solid state simultaneously with the top-down formation of the CNCs via hydrolysis with HCl vapor. Upon hydrolysis, cellulose microfibrils in the fiber break down to CNCs that then pack together, resulting in reduced pore size distribution of the original fiber. The denser packing is demonstrated by N2 adsorption, water uptake, thermoporometry, and small-angle X-ray scattering, and hypothetically assigned to attractive van der Waals interactions between the CNCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iina Solala
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O.Box 16300, Aalto, FI-00076, Finland
| | - Carlos Driemeier
- Brazilian Biorenewables National Laboratory (LNBR), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Andreas Mautner
- Polymer and Composite Engineering (PaCE) Group, Institute of Materials Chemistry and Research, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 42, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
| | - Paavo A Penttilä
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O.Box 16300, Aalto, FI-00076, Finland.,Large Scale Structures Group, Institut Max von Laue - Paul Langevin (ILL), 71 Avenue des Martyrs - CS 20156, Grenoble, F-38042, Cedex 9, France
| | - Jani Seitsonen
- Nanomicroscopy Centre, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, Aalto, FI-00076, Finland
| | - Miika Leppänen
- Nanoscience Centre, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
| | - Karl Mihhels
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O.Box 16300, Aalto, FI-00076, Finland
| | - Eero Kontturi
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O.Box 16300, Aalto, FI-00076, Finland
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5
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Penttilä PA, Van Gassen S, Panovska D, Vanderbeke L, Van Herck Y, Quintelier K, Emmaneel A, Filtjens J, Malengier-Devlies B, Ahmadzadeh K, Van Mol P, Borràs DM, Antoranz A, Bosisio FM, Wauters E, Martinod K, Matthys P, Saeys Y, Garg AD, Wauters J, De Smet F. High dimensional profiling identifies specific immune types along the recovery trajectories of critically ill COVID19 patients. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:3987-4002. [PMID: 33715015 PMCID: PMC7955698 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03808-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic poses a major burden on healthcare and economic systems across the globe. Even though a majority of the population develops only minor symptoms upon SARS-CoV-2 infection, a significant number are hospitalized at intensive care units (ICU) requiring critical care. While insights into the early stages of the disease are rapidly expanding, the dynamic immunological processes occurring in critically ill patients throughout their recovery at ICU are far less understood. Here, we have analysed whole blood samples serially collected from 40 surviving COVID-19 patients throughout their recovery in ICU using high-dimensional cytometry by time-of-flight (CyTOF) and cytokine multiplexing. Based on the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), we defined four sequential immunotypes during recovery that correlated to various clinical parameters, including the level of respiratory support at concomitant sampling times. We identified classical monocytes as the first immune cell type to recover by restoration of HLA-DR-positivity and the reduction of immunosuppressive CD163 + monocytes, followed by the recovery of CD8 + and CD4 + T cell and non-classical monocyte populations. The identified immunotypes also correlated to aberrant cytokine and acute-phase reactant levels. Finally, integrative analysis of cytokines and immune cell profiles showed a shift from an initially dysregulated immune response to a more coordinated immunogenic interplay, highlighting the importance of longitudinal sampling to understand the pathophysiology underlying recovery from severe COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Penttilä
- KU Leuven Flow and Mass Cytometry Facility, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - S Van Gassen
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Computer Science and Statistics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Data Mining and Modeling for Biomedicine, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - D Panovska
- Laboratory for Precision Cancer Medicine, Translational Cell and Tissue Research, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - L Vanderbeke
- Laboratory of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Y Van Herck
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, Department of Oncology,, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - K Quintelier
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Computer Science and Statistics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Data Mining and Modeling for Biomedicine, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - A Emmaneel
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Computer Science and Statistics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Data Mining and Modeling for Biomedicine, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - J Filtjens
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - B Malengier-Devlies
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - K Ahmadzadeh
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - P Van Mol
- Laboratory of Translational Genetics, Department of Human Genetics, VIB-KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - D M Borràs
- Laboratory for Cell Stress and Immunity (CSI), Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine (CMM), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - A Antoranz
- Laboratory for Precision Cancer Medicine, Translational Cell and Tissue Research, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - F M Bosisio
- Translational Cell and Tissue Research, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - E Wauters
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - K Martinod
- Center for Molecular and Vascular Biology, Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - P Matthys
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Y Saeys
- Data Mining and Modeling for Biomedicine, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - A D Garg
- Laboratory for Cell Stress and Immunity (CSI), Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine (CMM), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - J Wauters
- Laboratory for Clinical Infectious and Inflammatory Disorders, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - F De Smet
- Laboratory for Precision Cancer Medicine, Translational Cell and Tissue Research, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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6
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Penttilä PA, Altgen M, Awais M, Österberg M, Rautkari L, Schweins R. Bundling of cellulose microfibrils in native and polyethylene glycol-containing wood cell walls revealed by small-angle neutron scattering. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20844. [PMID: 33257738 PMCID: PMC7705696 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77755-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Wood and other plant-based resources provide abundant, renewable raw materials for a variety of applications. Nevertheless, their utilization would greatly benefit from more efficient and accurate methods to characterize the detailed nanoscale architecture of plant cell walls. Non-invasive techniques such as neutron and X-ray scattering hold a promise for elucidating the hierarchical cell wall structure and any changes in its morphology, but their use is hindered by challenges in interpreting the experimental data. We used small-angle neutron scattering in combination with contrast variation by poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to identify the scattering contribution from cellulose microfibril bundles in native wood cell walls. Using this method, mean diameters for the microfibril bundles from 12 to 19 nm were determined, without the necessity of cutting, drying or freezing the cell wall. The packing distance of the individual microfibrils inside the bundles can be obtained from the same data. This finding opens up possibilities for further utilization of small-angle scattering in characterizing the plant cell wall nanostructure and its response to chemical, physical and biological modifications or even in situ treatments. Moreover, our results give new insights into the interaction between PEG and the wood nanostructure, which may be helpful for preservation of archaeological woods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A Penttilä
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland.
- Large-Scale Structures Group, Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL), 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France.
| | - Michael Altgen
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Muhammad Awais
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Monika Österberg
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Lauri Rautkari
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Ralf Schweins
- Large-Scale Structures Group, Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL), 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France
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7
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Penttilä PA, Paajanen A, Ketoja JA. Combining scattering analysis and atomistic simulation of wood-water interactions. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 251:117064. [PMID: 33142616 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Molecular-scale interactions between water and cellulose microfibril bundles in plant cell walls are not fully understood, despite their crucial role for many applications of plant biomass. Recent advances in X-ray and neutron scattering analysis allow more accurate interpretation of experimental data from wood cell walls. At the same time, microfibril bundles including hemicelluloses and water can be modelled at atomistic resolution. Computing scattering patterns from atomistic models enables a new, complementary approach to decipher some of the most fundamental questions at this level of the hierarchical cell wall structure. This article introduces studies related to moisture behavior of wood with small/wide-angle X-ray/neutron scattering and atomistic simulations, recent attempts to combine these two approaches, and perspectives and open questions for future research using this powerful combination. Finally, we discuss the opportunities of the combined method in relation to applications of lignocellulosic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A Penttilä
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland.
| | - Antti Paajanen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Jukka A Ketoja
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland
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8
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Penttilä PA, Vierros S, Utriainen K, Carl N, Rautkari L, Sammalkorpi M, Österberg M. Phospholipid-Based Reverse Micelle Structures in Vegetable Oil Modified by Water Content, Free Fatty Acid, and Temperature. Langmuir 2019; 35:8373-8382. [PMID: 31141381 PMCID: PMC6750831 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b01135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Colloidal assemblies of phospholipids in oil are known to be highly sensitive to changes in system composition and temperature. Despite the fundamental biological and high industrial relevance of these aggregates, the mechanisms behind the structural changes, especially in real oils, are not well understood. In this work, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) was combined with molecular dynamics simulations to characterize the effects of oleic acid, water, and temperature on self-assembled structures formed by lecithin in rapeseed oil. SAXS showed that adding water to the mixtures caused the precipitation of liquid-crystalline phases with lamellar or hexagonal geometry. The combination of SAXS and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that stable spherical reverse micelles in oil had a core radius of about 2 nm and consisted of approximately 60 phospholipids centered around a core containing water and sugars. The presence of oleic acid improved the stability of reverse micelles against precipitation due to the increase in the water concentration in oil by allowing the reverse micelle cores to expand and accommodate more water. The shape and size of the reverse micelles changed at high temperatures, and irreversible elongation was observed, especially in the presence of oleic acid. The findings show the interdependency of the structure of the reverse micellar aggregates on system composition, in particular, oleic acid and water, as well as temperature. The revealed characteristics of the self-assembled structures have significance in understanding and tuning the properties of vegetable oil-based emulsions, food products, oil purification, and drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A. Penttilä
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems and Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
- Large-Scale
Structures Group, Institut Laue-Langevin, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- E-mail: . Phone: +358 (0)50 476 6800
| | - Sampsa Vierros
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems and Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Katja Utriainen
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems and Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Nico Carl
- Large-Scale
Structures Group, Institut Laue-Langevin, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Lauri Rautkari
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems and Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Maria Sammalkorpi
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems and Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Monika Österberg
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems and Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
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Penttilä PA, Rautkari L, Österberg M, Schweins R. Small-angle scattering model for efficient characterization of wood nanostructure and moisture behaviour. J Appl Crystallogr 2019; 52:369-377. [PMID: 30996716 PMCID: PMC6448686 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576719002012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Small-angle scattering methods allow an efficient characterization of the hierarchical structure of wood and other cellulosic materials. However, their full utilization would require an analytical model to fit the experimental data. This contribution presents a small-angle scattering model tailored to the analysis of wood samples. The model is based on infinitely long cylinders packed in a hexagonal array with paracrystalline distortion, adapted to the particular purpose of modelling the packing of cellulose microfibrils in the secondary cell wall of wood. The new model has been validated with small-angle neutron and X-ray scattering data from real wood samples at various moisture contents. The model yields reasonable numerical values for the microfibril diameter (2.1-2.5 nm) and packing distance (4 and 3 nm in wet and dry states, respectively) and comparable results between the two methods. It is particularly applicable to wet wood samples and allows changes in the packing of cellulose microfibrils to be followed as a function of moisture content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A. Penttilä
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Science Division/Large-Scale Structures Group, Institut Laue–Langevin, 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Lauri Rautkari
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Monika Österberg
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Ralf Schweins
- Science Division/Large-Scale Structures Group, Institut Laue–Langevin, 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38042 Grenoble, France
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10
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Tajima H, Penttilä PA, Imai T, Yamamoto K, Yuguchi Y. Observation of in vitro cellulose synthesis by bacterial cellulose synthase with time-resolved small angle X-ray scattering. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 130:765-777. [PMID: 30831170 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose synthase is the enzyme that produces cellulose in the living organisms like plant, and has two functions: polymerizing glucose residues (polymerization) and assembling these polymerized molecules into a crystalline microfibril with a "cellulose I" crystallographic structure (crystallization). Many studies, however, have shown that an in vitro reaction of cellulose synthase produces aggregates of a non-native crystallographic structure "cellulose II", despite the remaining polymerizing activity. This is partial denaturation or loss of crystallization function in cellulose synthase, which needs to be resolved to reconstitute its native activity. To this end, we aimed to clarify the process of cellulose II formation by bacterial cellulose synthase in vitro, using in situ small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). An increase in scattering specific to synthesis was observed around two distinct regions of q (0.2-0.4 nm-1 and <0.1 nm-1) by time-resolved SAXS measurement. The scattering at higher q-region appears prior to lower-q scattering at beginning of the reaction, indicating the existence of smaller primitive aggregations at the initiation stage. This study demonstrates the use of in situ SAXS measurement to decipher the dynamics of biosynthesized cellulose chains, which is a remarkable example of polymer assembly in ambient conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirotaka Tajima
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Paavo A Penttilä
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan; Science Division/Large-Scale Structures Group, Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL), 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Tomoya Imai
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
| | - Kyoko Yamamoto
- Faculty of Engineering, Osaka Electro-Communication University, 18-8 Hatsucho, Neyagawa, Osaka 572-8530, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Yuguchi
- Faculty of Engineering, Osaka Electro-Communication University, 18-8 Hatsucho, Neyagawa, Osaka 572-8530, Japan.
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11
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Penttilä PA, Imai T, Sugiyama J, Schweins R. Biomimetic composites of deuterated bacterial cellulose and hemicelluloses studied with small-angle neutron scattering. Eur Polym J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2018.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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12
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Penttilä PA, Imai T, Hemming J, Willför S, Sugiyama J. Enzymatic hydrolysis of biomimetic bacterial cellulose-hemicellulose composites. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 190:95-102. [PMID: 29628264 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The production of biofuels and other chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass is limited by the inefficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis. Here a biomimetic composite material consisting of bacterial cellulose and wood-based hemicelluloses was used to study the effects of hemicelluloses on the enzymatic hydrolysis with a commercial cellulase mixture. Bacterial cellulose synthesized in the presence of hemicelluloses, especially xylan, was found to be more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis than hemicellulose-free bacterial cellulose. The reason for the easier hydrolysis could be related to the nanoscale structure of the substrate, particularly the packing of cellulose microfibrils into ribbons or bundles. In addition, small-angle X-ray scattering was used to show that the average nanoscale morphology of bacterial cellulose remained unchanged during the enzymatic hydrolysis. The reported easier enzymatic hydrolysis of bacterial cellulose produced in the presence of wood-based xylan offers new insights to overcome biomass recalcitrance through genetic engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A Penttilä
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, 611-0011 Uji, Japan.
| | - Tomoya Imai
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, 611-0011 Uji, Japan
| | - Jarl Hemming
- Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Porthansgatan 3-5, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Stefan Willför
- Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Porthansgatan 3-5, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Junji Sugiyama
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, 611-0011 Uji, Japan
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Penttilä PA, Imai T, Sugiyama J. Fibrillar assembly of bacterial cellulose in the presence of wood-based hemicelluloses. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 102:111-118. [PMID: 28392383 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Composite materials mimicking the plant cell wall structure were made by culturing cellulose-producing bacteria together with secondary-wall hemicelluloses from wood. The effects of spruce galactoglucomannan (GGM) and beech xylan on the nanoscale morphology of bacterial cellulose were studied in the original, hydrated state with small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The SAXS intensities were fitted with a model covering multiple levels of the hierarchical structure. Additional information on the structure of dried samples was obtained using scanning and transmission electron microscopy and infra-red spectroscopy. Both hemicelluloses induced a partial conversion of the cellulose crystal structure from Iα to Iβ and a reduction of the cross-sectional dimensions of the cellulose microfibrils, thereby affecting also their packing into bundles. The differences were more pronounced in samples with xylan instead of GGM, and they became more significant with higher hemicellulose concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A Penttilä
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji 611-0011, Japan
| | - Tomoya Imai
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji 611-0011, Japan
| | - Junji Sugiyama
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji 611-0011, Japan
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Kontturi E, Meriluoto A, Penttilä PA, Baccile N, Malho JM, Potthast A, Rosenau T, Ruokolainen J, Serimaa R, Laine J, Sixta H. Degradation and Crystallization of Cellulose in Hydrogen Chloride Vapor for High-Yield Isolation of Cellulose Nanocrystals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:14455-14458. [PMID: 27761976 DOI: 10.1002/anie.v55.4610.1002/anie.201606626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Despite the structural, load-bearing role of cellulose in the plant kingdom, countless efforts have been devoted to degrading this recalcitrant polysaccharide, particularly in the context of biofuels and renewable nanomaterials. Herein, we show how the exposure of plant-based fibers to HCl vapor results in rapid degradation with simultaneous crystallization. Because of the unchanged sample texture and the lack of mass transfer out of the substrate in the gas/solid system, the changes in the crystallinity could be reliably monitored. Furthermore, we describe the preparation of cellulose nanocrystals in high yields and with minimal water consumption. The study serves as a starting point for the solid-state tuning of the supramolecular properties of morphologically heterogeneous biological materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eero Kontturi
- Department of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland.
- Polymer and Composites Engineering group Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | | | - Paavo A Penttilä
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Niki Baccile
- Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris, Sorbonne Universités, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Jani-Markus Malho
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Antje Potthast
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Wien, Austria
| | - Thomas Rosenau
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Wien, Austria
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Ritva Serimaa
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Janne Laine
- Department of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Herbert Sixta
- Department of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
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Kontturi E, Meriluoto A, Penttilä PA, Baccile N, Malho JM, Potthast A, Rosenau T, Ruokolainen J, Serimaa R, Laine J, Sixta H. Cellulose-Nanokristalle in hoher Ausbeute durch Abbau und Kristallisation von Cellulose mittels gasförmigem Chlorwasserstoff. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201606626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eero Kontturi
- Department of Forest Products Technology; Aalto University; P.O. Box 16300 00076 Aalto Finnland
- Polymer and Composites Engineering group Department of Chemical Engineering; Imperial College London; London SW7 2AZ Großbritannien
| | | | - Paavo A. Penttilä
- Department of Physics; University of Helsinki; P.O. Box 64 00014 Helsinki Finnland
| | - Niki Baccile
- Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris; Sorbonne Universités; 75005 Paris Frankreich
| | - Jani-Markus Malho
- Department of Applied Physics; Aalto University; P.O. Box 15100 00076 Aalto Finnland
| | - Antje Potthast
- Universität für Bodenkultur; Muthgasse 18 1190 Wien Österreich
| | - Thomas Rosenau
- Universität für Bodenkultur; Muthgasse 18 1190 Wien Österreich
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department of Applied Physics; Aalto University; P.O. Box 15100 00076 Aalto Finnland
| | - Ritva Serimaa
- Department of Physics; University of Helsinki; P.O. Box 64 00014 Helsinki Finnland
| | - Janne Laine
- Department of Forest Products Technology; Aalto University; P.O. Box 16300 00076 Aalto Finnland
| | - Herbert Sixta
- Department of Forest Products Technology; Aalto University; P.O. Box 16300 00076 Aalto Finnland
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Kontturi E, Meriluoto A, Penttilä PA, Baccile N, Malho JM, Potthast A, Rosenau T, Ruokolainen J, Serimaa R, Laine J, Sixta H. Degradation and Crystallization of Cellulose in Hydrogen Chloride Vapor for High-Yield Isolation of Cellulose Nanocrystals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:14455-14458. [PMID: 27761976 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201606626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Despite the structural, load-bearing role of cellulose in the plant kingdom, countless efforts have been devoted to degrading this recalcitrant polysaccharide, particularly in the context of biofuels and renewable nanomaterials. Herein, we show how the exposure of plant-based fibers to HCl vapor results in rapid degradation with simultaneous crystallization. Because of the unchanged sample texture and the lack of mass transfer out of the substrate in the gas/solid system, the changes in the crystallinity could be reliably monitored. Furthermore, we describe the preparation of cellulose nanocrystals in high yields and with minimal water consumption. The study serves as a starting point for the solid-state tuning of the supramolecular properties of morphologically heterogeneous biological materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eero Kontturi
- Department of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland. .,Polymer and Composites Engineering group Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | | | - Paavo A Penttilä
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Niki Baccile
- Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris, Sorbonne Universités, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Jani-Markus Malho
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Antje Potthast
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Wien, Austria
| | - Thomas Rosenau
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Wien, Austria
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Ritva Serimaa
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Janne Laine
- Department of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Herbert Sixta
- Department of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland
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Penttilä PA, Sugiyama J, Imai T. Effects of reaction conditions on cellulose structures synthesized in vitro by bacterial cellulose synthases. Carbohydr Polym 2016; 136:656-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.09.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Kontro I, Wiedmer SK, Hynönen U, Penttilä PA, Palva A, Serimaa R. The structure of Lactobacillus brevis surface layer reassembled on liposomes differs from native structure as revealed by SAXS. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes 2014; 1838:2099-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Testova L, Nieminen K, Penttilä PA, Serimaa R, Potthast A, Sixta H. Cellulose degradation in alkaline media upon acidic pretreatment and stabilisation. Carbohydr Polym 2014; 100:185-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Ramos Diaz JM, Kirjoranta S, Tenitz S, Penttilä PA, Serimaa R, Lampi AM, Jouppila K. Use of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa in extruded corn-based snacks. J Cereal Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Penttilä PA, Várnai A, Pere J, Tammelin T, Salmén L, Siika-aho M, Viikari L, Serimaa R. Xylan as limiting factor in enzymatic hydrolysis of nanocellulose. Bioresour Technol 2013; 129:135-41. [PMID: 23238342 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Revised: 11/01/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2012] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The role of xylan as a limiting factor in the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose was studied by hydrolysing nanocellulose samples prepared by mechanical fibrillation of birch pulp with varying xylan content. Analyzing the nanocelluloses and their hydrolysis residues with dynamic FT-IR spectroscopy revealed that a certain fraction of xylan remained tightly attached to cellulose fibrils despite partial hydrolysis of xylan with xylanase prior to pulp fibrillation and that this fraction remained in the structure during the hydrolysis of nanocellulose with cellulase mixture as well. Thus, a loosely bound fraction of xylan was predicted to have been more likely removed by purified xylanase. The presence of loosely bound xylan seemed to limit the hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose, indicated by an increase in cellulose crystallinity and by preserved crystal width measured with wide-angle X-ray scattering. Removing loosely bound xylan led to a proportional hydrolysis of xylan and cellulose with the cellulase mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A Penttilä
- University of Helsinki, Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
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Hauru LKJ, Ma Y, Hummel M, Alekhina M, King AWT, Kilpeläinen I, Penttilä PA, Serimaa R, Sixta H. Enhancement of ionic liquid-aided fractionation of birchwood. Part 1: autohydrolysis pretreatment. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra41529e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Tolonen LK, Zuckerstätter G, Penttilä PA, Milacher W, Habicht W, Serimaa R, Kruse A, Sixta H. Structural Changes in Microcrystalline Cellulose in Subcritical Water Treatment. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:2544-51. [DOI: 10.1021/bm200351y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lasse K. Tolonen
- Department of Forest Product Technology, School of Chemical Technology, Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | | | - Wilhelm Habicht
- Institute of Catalyst Research and Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Ritva Serimaa
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Andrea Kruse
- Institute of Catalyst Research and Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Herbert Sixta
- Department of Forest Product Technology, School of Chemical Technology, Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland
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Penttilä PA, Várnai A, Leppänen K, Peura M, Kallonen A, Jääskeläinen P, Lucenius J, Ruokolainen J, Siika-aho M, Viikari L, Serimaa R. Changes in Submicrometer Structure of Enzymatically Hydrolyzed Microcrystalline Cellulose. Biomacromolecules 2010; 11:1111-7. [DOI: 10.1021/bm1001119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paavo A. Penttilä
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Anikó Várnai
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Kirsi Leppänen
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Marko Peura
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Aki Kallonen
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Pentti Jääskeläinen
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Jessica Lucenius
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Matti Siika-aho
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Liisa Viikari
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Ritva Serimaa
- Departments of Physics and Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science and Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, Espoo, Finland, and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
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