Software for the frontiers of quantum chemistry: An overview of developments in the Q-Chem 5 package

This article summarizes technical advances contained in the fifth major release of the Q-Chem quantum chemistry program package, covering developments since 2015. A comprehensive library of exchange-correlation functionals, along with a suite of correlated many-body methods, continues to be a hallmark of the Q-Chem software. The many-body methods include novel variants of both coupled-cluster and configuration-interaction approaches along with methods based on the algebraic diagrammatic construction and variational reduced density-matrix methods. Methods highlighted in Q-Chem 5 include a suite of tools for modeling core-level spectroscopy, methods for describing metastable resonances, methods for computing vibronic spectra, the nuclear-electronic orbital method, and several different energy decomposition analysis techniques. High-performance capabilities including multithreaded parallelism and support for calculations on graphics processing units are described. Q-Chem boasts a community of well over 100 active academic developers, and the continuing evolution of the software is supported by an "open teamware" model and an increasingly modular design.

From Intermolecular Interaction Energies and Observable Shifts to Component Contributions and Back Again: A Tale of Variational Energy Decomposition Analysis

Quantum chemistry in the form of density functional theory (DFT) calculations is a powerful numerical experiment for predicting intermolecular interaction energies. However, no chemical insight is gained in this way beyond predictions of observables. Energy decomposition analysis (EDA) can quantitatively bridge this gap by providing values for the chemical drivers of the interactions, such as permanent electrostatics, Pauli repulsion, dispersion, and charge transfer. These energetic contributions are identified by performing DFT calculations with constraints that disable components of the interaction. This review describes the second-generation version of the absolutely localized molecular orbital EDA (ALMO-EDA-II). The effects of different physical contributions on changes in observables such as structure and vibrational frequencies upon complex formation are characterized via the adiabatic EDA. Example applications include red- versus blue-shifting hydrogen bonds; the bonding and frequency shifts of CO, N₂, and BF bound to a [Ru(II)(NH₃)₅]^{2 +} moiety; and the nature of the strongly bound complexes between pyridine and the benzene and naphthalene radical cations. Additionally, the use of ALMO-EDA-II to benchmark and guide the development of advanced force fields for molecular simulation is illustrated with the recent, very promising, MB-UCB potential.

A non-perturbative pairwise-additive analysis of charge transfer contributions to intermolecular interaction energies

A non-perturbative scheme for complete decomposition of energy and charge associated with charge transfer interaction into pairwise additive components.

Probing radical-molecule interactions with a second generation energy decomposition analysis of DFT calculations using absolutely localized molecular orbitals

Intermolecular interactions between radicals and closed-shell molecules are ubiquitous in chemical processes, ranging from the benchtop to the atmosphere and extraterrestrial space. While energy decomposition analysis (EDA) schemes for closed-shell molecules can be generalized for studying radical-molecule interactions, they face challenges arising from the unique characteristics of the electronic structure of open-shell species. In this work, we introduce additional steps that are necessary for the proper treatment of radical-molecule interactions to our previously developed unrestricted Absolutely Localized Molecular Orbital (uALMO)-EDA based on density functional theory calculations. A "polarize-then-depolarize" (PtD) scheme is used to remove arbitrariness in the definition of the frozen wavefunction, rendering the ALMO-EDA results independent of the orientation of the unpaired electron obtained from isolated fragment calculations. The contribution of radical rehybridization to polarization energies is evaluated. It is also valuable to monitor the wavefunction stability of each intermediate state, as well as their associated spin density profiles, to ensure the EDA results correspond to a desired electronic state. These radical extensions are incorporated into the "vertical" and "adiabatic" variants of uALMO-EDA for studies of energy changes and property shifts upon complexation. The EDA is validated on two model complexes, H₂O˙F and FH˙OH. It is then applied to several chemically interesting radical-molecule complexes, including the sandwiched and T-shaped benzene dimer radical cation, complexes of pyridine with benzene and naphthalene radical cations, binary and ternary complexes of the hydroxyl radical with water (˙OH(H₂O) and ˙OH(H₂O)₂), and the pre-reactive complexes and transition states in the ˙OH + HCHO and ˙OH + CH₃CHO reactions. These examples suggest that this second generation uALMO-EDA is a useful tool for furthering one's understanding of both energetic and property changes associated with radical-molecule interactions.

On the Computational Characterization of Charge-Transfer Effects in Noncovalently Bound Molecular Complexes

Charge-transfer (CT) is an important binding force in the formation of intermolecular complexes, and there have been a variety of theoretical models proposed to quantify this effect. These approaches, which typically rely on a definition of a "CT-free" state based on a partition of the system, sometimes yield significantly different results for a given intermolecular complex. Two widely used definitions of the "CT-free" state, the absolutely localized molecular orbitals (ALMO) method (where only on-fragment orbital mixings are permitted) and the constrained density functional theory (CDFT) approach (where fragment electron populations are fixed), are carefully examined in this work. Natural bond orbital (NBO) and the regularized symmetry-adapted perturbation theory (SAPT) are also briefly considered. Results for the ALMO and CDFT definitions of CT are compared on a broad range of model systems, including hydrogen-bonding systems, borane complexes, metal-carbonyl complexes, and complexes formed by water and metal cations. For most of these systems, CDFT yields a much smaller equilibrium CT energy compared to that given by the ALMO-based definition. This is mainly because the CDFT population constraint does not fully inhibit CT, which means that the CDFT "CT-free" state is in fact CT-contaminated. Examples of this contamination include (i) matching forward and backward donation (e.g., formic acid dimer) and (ii) unidirectional CT without changing fragment populations. The magnitude of the latter effect is quantified in systems such as the water dimer by employing a 3-space density constraint in addition to the orbital constraint. Furthermore, by means of the adiabatic EDA, it is shown that several observable effects of CT, such as the "pyramidalization" of the planar BH₃ molecule upon the complexation with Lewis bases, already appear on the "CT-free" CDFT surface. These results reveal the essential distinctions between the ALMO and CDFT definitions of CT and suggest that the former is more consistent with accepted understanding of the role of CT in intermolecular binding.

Energy decomposition analysis in an adiabatic picture

Energy decomposition analysis (EDA) of electronic structure calculations has facilitated quantitative understanding of diverse intermolecular interactions. Nevertheless, such analyses are usually performed at a single geometry and thus decompose a "single-point" interaction energy. As a result, the influence of the physically meaningful EDA components on the molecular structure and other properties are not directly obtained. To address this gap, the absolutely localized molecular orbital (ALMO)-EDA is reformulated in an adiabatic picture, where the frozen, polarization, and charge transfer energy contributions are defined as energy differences between the stationary points on different potential energy surfaces (PESs), which are accessed by geometry optimizations at the frozen, polarized and fully relaxed levels of density functional theory (DFT). Other molecular properties such as vibrational frequencies can thus be obtained at the stationary points on each PES. We apply the adiabatic ALMO-EDA to different configurations of the water dimer, the water-Cl^- and water-Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ complexes, metallocenes (Fe²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺), and the ammonia-borane complex. This method appears to be very useful for unraveling how physical effects such as polarization and charge transfer modulate changes in molecular properties induced by intermolecular interactions. As an example of the insight obtained, we find that a linear hydrogen bond geometry for the water dimer is preferred even without the presence of polarization and charge transfer, while the red shift in the OH stretch frequency is primarily a charge transfer effect; by contrast, a near-linear geometry for the water-chloride hydrogen bond is achieved only when charge transfer is allowed.

Probing non-covalent interactions with a second generation energy decomposition analysis using absolutely localized molecular orbitals

An energy decomposition analysis (EDA) separates a calculated interaction energy into as many interpretable contributions as possible; for instance, permanent and induced electrostatics, Pauli repulsions, dispersion and charge transfer. The challenge is to construct satisfactory definitions of all terms in the chemically relevant regime where fragment densities overlap, rendering unique definitions impossible. Towards this goal, we present an improved EDA for Kohn-Sham density functional theory (DFT) with properties that have previously not been simultaneously attained. Building on the absolutely localized molecular orbital (ALMO)-EDA, this second generation ALMO-EDA is variational and employs valid antisymmetric electronic wavefunctions to produce all five contributions listed above. These contributions moreover all have non-trivial complete basis set limits. We apply the EDA to the water dimer, the T-shaped and parallel-displaced benzene dimer, the p-biphthalate dimer "anti-electrostatic" hydrogen bonding complex, the biologically relevant binding of adenine and thymine in stacked and hydrogen-bonded configurations, the triply hydrogen-bonded guanine-cytosine complex, the interaction of Cl(-) with s-triazine and with the 1,3-dimethyl imidazolium cation, which is relevant to the study of ionic liquids, and the water-formaldehyde-vinyl alcohol ter-molecular radical cationic complex formed in the dissociative photoionization of glycerol.

Defining the contributions of permanent electrostatics, Pauli repulsion, and dispersion in density functional theory calculations of intermolecular interaction energies

In energy decomposition analysis of Kohn-Sham density functional theory calculations, the so-called frozen (or pre-polarization) interaction energy contains contributions from permanent electrostatics, dispersion, and Pauli repulsion. The standard classical approach to separate them suffers from several well-known limitations. We introduce an alternative scheme that employs valid antisymmetric electronic wavefunctions throughout and is based on the identification of individual fragment contributions to the initial supersystem wavefunction as determined by an energetic optimality criterion. The density deformations identified with individual fragments upon formation of the initial supersystem wavefunction are analyzed along with the distance dependence of the new and classical terms for test cases that include the neon dimer, ammonia borane, water-Na(+), water-Cl(-), and the naphthalene dimer.

Alternative definitions of the frozen energy in energy decomposition analysis of density functional theory calculations

In energy decomposition analysis (EDA) of intermolecular interactions calculated via density functional theory, the initial supersystem wavefunction defines the so-called "frozen energy" including contributions such as permanent electrostatics, steric repulsions, and dispersion. This work explores the consequences of the choices that must be made to define the frozen energy. The critical choice is whether the energy should be minimized subject to the constraint of fixed density. Numerical results for Ne2, (H2O)2, BH3-NH3, and ethane dissociation show that there can be a large energy lowering associated with constant density orbital relaxation. By far the most important contribution is constant density inter-fragment relaxation, corresponding to charge transfer (CT). This is unwanted in an EDA that attempts to separate CT effects, but it may be useful in other contexts such as force field development. An algorithm is presented for minimizing single determinant energies at constant density both with and without CT by employing a penalty function that approximately enforces the density constraint.

A systematic study on Pt based, subnanometer-sized alloy cluster catalysts for alkane dehydrogenation: effects of intermetallic interaction

The dehydrogenation of propane over platinum-based bimetallic nanoparticles is analyzed by the application of density functional theory to a series of tetrahedral Pt₃X cluster models.

Polarization contributions to intermolecular interactions revisited with fragment electric-field response functions

The polarization energy in intermolecular interactions treated by self-consistent field electronic structure theory is often evaluated using a constraint that the atomic orbital (AO) to molecular orbital transformation is blocked by fragments. This approach is tied to AO basis sets, overestimates polarization energies in the overlapping regime, particularly in large AO basis sets, and lacks a useful complete basis set limit. These problems are addressed by the construction of polarization subspaces based on the responses of isolated fragments to weak electric fields. These subspaces are spanned by fragment electric-field response functions, which can capture effects up to the dipole (D), or quadrupole (DQ) level, or beyond. Schemes are presented for the creation of both non-orthogonal and orthogonal fragment subspaces, and the basis set convergence of the polarization energies computed using these spaces is assessed. Numerical calculations for the water dimer, water-Na(+), water-Mg(2+), water-F(-), and water-Cl(-) show that the non-orthogonal DQ model is very satisfactory, with small differences relative to the orthogonalized model. Additionally, we prove a fundamental difference between the polarization degrees of freedom in the fragment-blocked approaches and in constrained density schemes. Only the former are capable of properly prohibiting charge delocalization during polarization.

Fast, accurate evaluation of exact exchange: The occ-RI-K algorithm

Construction of the exact exchange matrix, K, is typically the rate-determining step in hybrid density functional theory, and therefore, new approaches with increased efficiency are highly desirable. We present a framework with potential for greatly improved efficiency by computing a compressed exchange matrix that yields the exact exchange energy, gradient, and direct inversion of the iterative subspace (DIIS) error vector. The compressed exchange matrix is constructed with one index in the compact molecular orbital basis and the other index in the full atomic orbital basis. To illustrate the advantages, we present a practical algorithm that uses this framework in conjunction with the resolution of the identity (RI) approximation. We demonstrate that convergence using this method, referred to hereafter as occupied orbital RI-K (occ-RI-K), in combination with the DIIS algorithm is well-behaved, that the accuracy of computed energetics is excellent (identical to conventional RI-K), and that significant speedups can be obtained over existing integral-direct and RI-K methods. For a 4400 basis function C68H22 hydrogen-terminated graphene fragment, our algorithm yields a 14× speedup over the conventional algorithm and a speedup of 3.3× over RI-K.