Collegiate women's wrestling body fat percentage and minimum wrestling weight values: time for revisiting minimal body fat percent?

BACKGROUND

The estimation of body fat percentage (BF%) in wrestling is used to determine the minimum wrestling weight (MWW) and lowest allowable weight class (MWC) in which wrestlers are eligible to compete. A 12% minimum threshold is currently used for women wrestlers, yet a potential increase for safety has been discussed. Because of the novelty of collegiate women's wrestling, there is a paucity of literature available on the body composition norms of this population. The purpose of this study was to provide a descriptive summary of BF% and MWW values of female wrestlers and how MWW values would change with the use of different BF% thresholds.

METHODS

Data from the 2022-2023 collegiate season were retrospectively analyzed resulting in a sample of 1,683 collegiate women wrestlers from the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA, n = 868) and the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA, n = 815). All wrestlers completed skinfold assessments for weight certification at the start of the competition season. The skinfold values were used to estimate BF% using the Slaughter skinfold prediction equation. Frequency statistics and descriptive analysis were performed to compute normative MWW and BF% profiles. BF% thresholds of 12% (12MWW) and the BF% value defined as the lowest 5th percentile, which would be considered unusually lean, were used to determine the resulting MWW and MWC for each method. The lowest recorded weight and weight class division throughout the season was also recorded for each wrestler.

RESULTS

There was a positively skewed (0.94) and platykurtic (1.86) distribution of MWW values. The median ± interquartile range BF% for all wrestlers was 27.4 ± 10.22%, with 17% BF representing the 5th percentile. Only 354 out of 1,579 (22.4%) wrestlers competed in their lowest allowable weight class, based on the 12MWW. Of these 354 wrestlers, the mean BF% was 21.3 ± 5.2% at weight certification with only n = 17 being at or below 12% body fat and an average weight loss of 11.1 ± 8.8 lbs. from the time of weight certification. Throughout the season, wrestlers competed at weights that were, on average (mean ± SD), 19.4 ± 16.9 lbs. higher than their 12MWW (95% CI: 18.6, 20.2 lbs. p < 0.001; effect size [ES] = 1.1), 13.4 ± 19.0 lbs. higher than the 17MWW (p < 0.001; ES = 0.70), and 8.7 ± 8.3 lbs. lower than their weight at the certification (95% CI: 8.3, 9.1 lbs. p < 0.001; ES = 1.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Nearly all BF% values were well above the 12% threshold used to determine MWW. Increasing the minimum BF% threshold from 12% to 17% would affect a small percentage of wrestlers, likely reduce the need for excessive weight cutting, and minimize the deleterious health effects of an athlete at such a low BF%.

NCAA Rule Change Improves Weight Loss among National Championship Wrestlers

PURPOSE

The present investigation was initiated to examine the weight management practices among wrestlers participating in the NCAA Division I, II, and III wrestling tournaments. Part 1 examined the efficacy of body composition assessment between preseason (PRE) and postseason (POST). Part 2 examined rapid weight loss (RWL) during the 20 h preceding the weigh-in and the rapid weight gained (RWG) during the first day's competition.

METHODS

Subjects include 811 competitors from Divisions I, II, and III participating in the NCAA national championship tournaments between 1999 and 2004. Measurements included relative body fatness (% BF) and weight (WT) on the day preceding the tournament and the evening of the first day. Minimal weight (MW) was computed with 5% BF. Retrospectively, MW, % BF, and WT from the previous fall were obtained for comparisons from NCAA records.

RESULTS

Part 1: WT and % BF decreased significantly PRE (WT 74.0 +/- 11.1 kg; % BF 12.3 +/- 3.4%) to POST (WT 71.5 +/- 10.4 kg; % BF 9.5 +/- 1.8%), but MW (PRE MW 68.0 +/- 9.2 kg, POST MW 67.9 +/- 9.1 kg) remained unchanged. Heavier wrestlers and Division I and II wrestlers showed the greatest changes in WT and % BF. Part 2: RWL averaged (+/- SD) 1.2 +/- 0.9 kg and relative to weight 1.7 +/- 1.2%. Division I and lighter wrestlers showed the greatest change. RWG averaged 0.9 +/- 0.8 kg, or 1.3 +/- 1.2%. RWG was greater among lighter and Division I and II wrestlers.

CONCLUSIONS

Minimal weight estimates PRE appear valid compared with POST. RWL and RWG are reduced significantly over previous investigations with only mat-side weigh-ins. The NCAA weight management program appears effective in reducing unhealthy weight cutting behaviors and promoting competitive equity. Efforts to institute similar programs among younger wrestlers seem warranted.

Accuracy of Urine Specific Gravity and Osmolality as Indicators of Hydration Status

To reduce the adverse consequences of exertion-related and acute intentional dehydration research has focused on monitoring hydration status. This investigation: 1) compared sensitivity of urine specific gravity (Usg), urine osmolality (Uosm) and a criterion measurement of hydration, plasma osmolality (Posm), at progressive stages of acute hypertonic dehydration and 2) using a medical decision model, determined whether Usg or Uosm accurately reflected hydra-tion status compared to Posm among 51 subjects tested throughout the day. Incremental changes in Posm were observed as subjects dehydrated by 5% of body weight and rehydrated while Usg and Uosm showed delayed dehydration-related changes. Using the medical decision model, sensitivity and specificity were not significant at selected cut-offs for Usg and Uosm. At the most accurate cut-off values, 1.015 and 1.020 for Usg and 700 mosm/kg and 800 mosm/kg for Uosm, only 65% of the athletes were correctly classified using Usg and 63% using Uosm. Posm, Usg, and Uosm appear sensitive to incremental changes in acute hypertonic dehydration, however, the misclassified outcomes for Usg and Uosm raise concerns. Research focused on elucidating the factors affecting accurate assessment of hydration status appears warranted.

Hydration testing of athletes

Dehydration not only reduces athletic performance, but also places athletes at risk of health problems and even death. For athletes, monitoring hydration has significant value in maximising performance during training and competition. It also offers medical personnel the opportunity to reduce health risks in situations where athletes engage in intentional weight loss. Simple non-invasive techniques, including weight monitoring and urine tests, can provide useful information. Bioimpedance methods tend to be easy to use and fairly inexpensive, but generally lack the precision and accuracy necessary for hydration monitoring. Blood tests appear to be the most accurate monitoring method, but are impractical because of cost and invasiveness. Although future research is needed to determine which hydration tests are the most accurate, we encourage sports teams to develop and implement hydration monitoring protocols based on the currently available methods. Medical personnel can use this information to maximise their team's athletic performance and minimise heat- and dehydration-related health risks to athletes.

Weight loss practices of college wrestlers

PURPOSE

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the weight management (WM) behaviors of collegiate wrestlers after the implementation of the NCAA's new weight control rules.

METHODS

In the fall of 1999, a survey was distributed to 47 college wrestling teams stratified by collegiate division (i.e., I, II, III) and competitive quality. Forty-three teams returned surveys for a total of 741 responses. Comparisons were made using the collegiate division, weight class, and the wrestler's competitive winning percentage.

RESULTS

The most weight lost during the season was 5.3 kg +/- 2.8 kg (mean +/- SD) or 6.9% +/- 4.7% of the wrestler's weight; weekly weight lost averaged 2.9 kg +/- 1.3 kg or 4.3% +/- 2.3% of the wrestler's weight; post-season, the average wrestler regained 5.5 kg +/- 3.6 kg or 8.6% +/- 5.4% of their weight. Coaches and fellow wrestlers were the primary influence on weight loss methods; however, 40.2% indicated that the new NCAA rules deterred extreme weight loss behaviors. The primary methods of weight loss reported were gradual dieting (79.4%) and increased exercise (75.2%). However, 54.8% fasted, 27.6% used saunas, and 26.7% used rubber/plastic suits at least once a month. Cathartics and vomiting were seldom used to lose weight, and only 5 met three or more of the criteria for bulimia nervosa. WM behaviors were more extreme among freshmen, lighter weight classes, and Division II wrestlers. Compared to previous surveys of high school wrestlers, this cohort of wrestlers reported more extreme WM behaviors. However, compared to college wrestlers in the 1980s, weight loss behaviors were less extreme.

CONCLUSIONS

The WM practices of college wrestlers appeared to have improved compared to wrestlers sampled previously. Forty percent of the wrestlers were influenced by the new NCAA rules and curbed their weight loss practices. Education is still needed, as some wrestlers are still engaging in dangerous WM methods.

Cross-validation of the NCAA method to predict body fat for minimum weight in collegiate wrestlers

OBJECTIVE

In 1998, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) adopted a new rule that required minimum weight testing for collegiate wrestlers. The objective of the study was to cross-validate the method used by the NCAA to estimate minimum weight in collegiate wrestlers.

DESIGN

The NCAA skinfold equation was cross-validated against a criterion value from hydrostatic weighing (HW). SETTING The subjects were tested at the Universities of Wisconsin and Iowa.

SUBJECTS

A sample of 93 college wrestlers from the Universities of Wisconsin and Iowa (mean +/- SD; age = 20.20 +/- 1.67 years, height = 171.98 +/- 6.63 cm, weight = 74.44 +/- 11.48 kg) were studied.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Cross-validation included analysis of the standard error of estimate (SEE), total error (TE), and residual plots.

RESULTS

The mean body fat from the NCAA prediction (10.61 +/- 3.58%) was not significantly different than HW (9.70 +/- 3.95%). The SEE was low (2.32%), and the TE was low (2.49%). The difference in methods was related to the size of the HW value. The residual plot (y = -0.26x + 3.45, R(2) = 0.198) suggests that fat is overestimated in the leaner wrestlers and underestimated in fatter wrestlers.

CONCLUSION

The authors found the NCAA method to be a valid predictor of body fat in this sample of 93 collegiate wrestlers under the conditions of the study. Although some bias was seen across the range of fatness, these data support the NCAA method to estimate body fat in college wrestlers for establishment of minimum weight.

Blood and urinary measures of hydration status during progressive acute dehydration

PURPOSE

To determine whether: a) plasma osmolarity (Posm) is sensitive to small incremental changes in hydration status, b) urine specific gravity (Usg) can accurately identify a state of euhydration, c) Usg is a sensitive indicator of a change in hydration status, and d) Usg correlates with Posm.

METHODS

Euhydrated (Posm = 288 +/- 4 mOsm.L-1) subjects (N = 12) were dehydrated by 5% of their body weight via exercise in the heat (40 degrees C, 20% RH). Posm, urine osmolarity (Uosm), and Usg were measured at 1%, 3%, and 5% dehydration, and 30 and 60 min of recovery (rec). Subjects consumed water in recovery equal to their loss of body weight.

RESULTS

Posm increased incrementally with each successive increase in percent body weight loss (%BWL). Usg was not significantly different from baseline until 3% BML. Uosm was not significantly different from baseline until 5% BWL. Usg correlated moderately (r = 0.46, P > 0.10) with Posm but reasonably well (r = 0.68, P < 0.02) with Uosm.

CONCLUSIONS

Posm accurately identifies a state of euhydration and is sensitive to changes in hydration status during acute dehydration and rehydration. Usg and Uosm are also sensitive to changes in hydration status but lag behind during periods of rapid body fluid turnover and therefore correlate only moderately with Posm during acute dehydration.

A comparison of leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance and skinfolds in assessing body fat in collegiate wrestlers

A comparison of the leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance (BIA) system and skinfold analysis in estimating % body fat in a large number of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) collegiate wrestlers was conducted. A series of 5 cross-sectional assessments, including the NCAA Division I and III Championships, were completed throughout the 1998-1999 wrestling season with samples ranging from (N = 90-274). Body density was determined from the 3 skinfold measures using the Lohman prediction equation. BIA measurements were determined using the Tanita body fat analyzer, model 305. Significant correlations between methods ranging from (r = 0.67-0.83, p < 0.001) and low standard error of estimates (SEE) for % body fat ranging from 2.1-3.5% were found throughout the 5 assessment periods. This preliminary study demonstrated that the leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance system accurately estimated % body fat when compared to skinfolds in a diverse collegiate wrestling population.

New equations improve NIR prediction of body fat among high school wrestlers

STUDY DESIGN

Methodologic study to derive prediction equations for percent body fat (%BF).

OBJECTIVES

To develop valid regression equations using NIR to assess body composition among high school wrestlers.

BACKGROUND

Clinicians need a portable, fast, and simple field method for assessing body composition among wrestlers. Near-infrared photospectrometry (NIR) meets these criteria, but its efficacy has been challenged.

METHODS AND MEASURES

Subjects were 150 high school wrestlers from 2 Midwestern states with mean +/- SD age of 16.3 +/- 1.1 yrs, weight of 69.5 +/- 11.7 kg, and height of 174.4 +/- 7.0 cm. Relative body fatness (%BF) determined from hydrostatic weighing was the criterion measure, and NIR optical density (OD) measurements at multiple sites, plus height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) were the predictor variables.

RESULTS

Four equations were developed with multiple R2s that varied from .530 to .693, root mean squared errors varied from 2.8% BF to 3.4% BF, and prediction errors varied from 2.9% BF to 3.1% BF. The best equation used OD measurements at the biceps, triceps, and thigh sites, BMI, and age. The root mean squared error and prediction error for all 4 equations were equal to or smaller than for a skinfold equation commonly used with wrestlers.

CONCLUSION

The results substantiate the validity of NIR for predicting % BF among high school wrestlers. Cross-validation of these equations is warranted.

Clinical diagnosis and the order of information

BACKGROUND

Information order can influence judgment. However, it remains unclear whether the order of clinical data affects physicians' interpretations of these data when they are engaged in familiar diagnostic tasks.

METHODS

Of 400 randomly selected family physicians who were given a questionnaire involving a brief written scenario about a young woman with acute dysuria, 315 (79%) returned usable responses. The physicians had been randomized into two groups, and both groups had received the same clinical information but in different orders. After learning the patient's chief complaint, physicians received either the patient's history and physical examination results followed by the laboratory data (the H&P-first group) or the laboratory data followed by the history and physical examination results (the H&P-last group). The results of the history and physical examination were supportive of the diagnosis of UTI, while the laboratory data were not. All physicians judged the probability of a urinary tract infection (UTI) after each piece of information.

RESULTS

The two groups had similar mean estimates of the probability of a UTI after learning the chief complaint (67.4% vs 67.8%, p = 0.85). At the end of the scenario, the H&P-first group judged UTI to be less likely than did the H&P-last group (50.9% vs 59.1%, p = 0.03) despite having identical information. Comparison of the mean likelihood ratios attributed to the clinical information showed that the H&P-first group gave less weight to the history and physical than did the H&P-last group (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

The order in which clinical information was presented influenced physicians' estimates of the probability of disease. The clinical history and physical examination were given more weight by physicians who received this information last.

Wisconsin minimum weight program reduces weight-cutting practices of high school wrestlers

OBJECTIVE

Winconsin high school wrestlers were surveyed 1 year before (90W) and 2 years after (93W) a new program was implemented to restrict weight loss for competition. The Wisconsin wrestling minimal weight program (WMWP) included a minimal weight limit determined from percent body fat and a nutrition education program.

DESIGN

A retrospective survey of wrestlers was conducted, with schools stratified to reflect school size and quality of the wrestling program.

PARTICIPANTS

Respondents surveyed in 1990 included 713 wrestlers from 45 schools; 368 wrestlers from 29 of the same schools responded to an identical survey in 1993.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Measures of weight-cutting practices, weight-loss methods, bulimic behaviors, and nutritional knowledge.

RESULTS

The most weight lost (MWL), the weight lost to certify (WLC), the weekly weight cycled (WWC), the longest fast (LF), and the frequency of cutting weight (FCW) all decreased significantly (chi 2, p < 0.05) among 93W wrestlers compared with 90W wrestlers. The results for the 90W group are as follows: MWL, 3.2 kg +/- 2.6; WLC, 2.8 kg +/- 2.8; WWC, 1.9 kg +/- 1.5; LF, 20.5 hours +/- 17.2; FCW, 6.2 +/- 6.4. The results for the 93W group are as follows: MWL, 2.6 kg +/- 2.6; WLC, 2.4 kg +/- 2.9; WWC, 1.6 kg +/- 1.4; LF, 16.5 hours +/- 15.6; FCW, 4.7 +/- 6.7. Weight-loss methods, including restricting food or fluids and use of rubber suits, declined significantly (chi 2, p < 0.05). Wrestlers exhibiting more than one of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R)-related bulimic behaviors decreased by 11% (chi 2, p < 0.05), but those exhibiting all five (1.6%) remained the same.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that the WMWP appeared to reduce unhealthy weight-loss behaviors among high school wrestlers. Other states should be encouraged to institute similar programs as recommended by the American Medical Association and the American College of Sports Medicine.

American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Weight loss in wrestlers

Despite a growing body of evidence admonishing the behavior, weight cutting (rapid weight reduction) remains prevalent among wrestlers. Weight cutting has significant adverse consequences that may affect competitive performance, physical health, and normal growth and development. To enhance the education experience and reduce the health risks for the participants, the ACSM recommends measures to educate coaches and wrestlers toward sound nutrition and weight control behaviors, to curtail "weight cutting," and to enact rules that limit weight loss.

Patients' views about physician participation in assisted suicide and euthanasia

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the effect of physician participation in physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia on the physician-patient relationship.

DESIGN

A questionnaire administered to 228 adult patients.

SETTING

A university-based family practice training program.

PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS

We approached 230 individuals of at least 19 years of age who were patients in the study practice. These individuals were selected on the basis of age and gender to ensure a heterogeneous study population. Of these, 228 agreed to participate and completed the questionnaire.

RESULTS

The majority of subjects felt that a physician who assists with suicide or performs euthanasia is capable of being a caring person (91% and 88%, respectively) and would still be able to offer emotional support to surviving family members (85% and 70%, respectively). Most also felt that a physician assisting in suicide or euthanasia would be as trustworthy as a nonparticipating physician to care for critically ill patients (90.5% and 84.6%, respectively). Five percent "likely would not" continue to see their physician if it was known that he or she assisted in suicide and 7.8% "likely would not" continue seeing their physician if it was known that this physician performed euthanasia. No individuals stated that they "definitely would not" continue seeing their doctor under either circumstance. Individuals who supported the ideas of physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia were more likely to think that a physician who assisted with suicide and euthanasia could perform well in the tasks noted above and would be more likely to continue seeing such a physician (p = .001).

CONCLUSION

Participating in physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia does not markedly adversely affect the physician-patient relationship.

The Wisconsin wrestling minimum weight project: a model for weight control among high school wrestlers

In 1989, the Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association implemented a project including new rules and an educational program, consistent with ACSM and AMA guidelines, to curtail "weight cutting" among high-school wrestlers. The project included skinfold estimates of body fatness to determine a minimum competitive weight, a limit on weekly weight loss, and presentation of nutrition education information to help wrestlers diet effectively. Implementation of the project has overcome a variety of obstacles and has received widespread endorsement from parents, teachers, wrestlers, and coaches. The success of this project offers a model for other states to emulate and should encourage clinicians in other sports to initiate interventions addressing these unhealthy weight loss behaviors.

Grappling With Weight Cutting

In response to a new state rule, the Wisconsin Minimum Weight Project was formed to curtail "weight cutting" among high school wrestlers. The project uses skinfold testing to determine a minimum competitive weight and nutrition education to help the wrestler diet safely. It serves as a model for other states and other sports.

Bulimic behaviors among interscholastic wrestlers: a statewide survey

Wrestlers are known for their extreme weight-cutting practices including fasting, food and fluid restriction, and dehydration. Using a stratified statewide survey, this investigation elucidated weight loss practices, nutritional knowledge, and bulimic behaviors among 713 high school wrestlers in Wisconsin. Results showed that 1.7% of the wrestlers answered questions consistent with all five criteria for bulimia nervosa, a rate higher than expected for adolescent males. An additional 43% exhibited weight-cutting practices similar to those of the wrestlers who met all bulimia nervosa criteria. The average wrestler lost 3.2 kg to compete, cycled 1.8 kg weekly, and fasted 20 hours prior to weigh-in. More extreme behaviors occurred among the 45% who met two or more bulimia nervosa criteria on their questionnaire; 19% frequently fasted, 25% restricted fluids, 34% used rubber suits, and 8% vomited. These results are comparable with data published over the past 20 years. Efforts to curtail these behaviors through regulations restricting weight loss coupled with sound nutritional information are warranted. Physicians and health professionals should be alert to potential eating disorders within this population.

Midwest wrestling study: prediction of minimal weight for high school wrestlers

This study determined the validity of previously published or newly derived equations to predict fat-free body mass (FFB) in high school wrestlers from the midwestern United States. Five laboratories participated in the data-pooling study (total sample of 860 subjects). Measures included body composition by underwater weighing and anthropometric measurements of body mass, stature, and selected circumferences, diameters, and skinfolds. Cross-validation of selected equations to predict FFB revealed the lowest levels of error from the equations of Lohman, Thorland et al., Katch and McArdle, and Behnke and Wilmore. Modification of the constants in these equations or generation of new equations did not substantially reduce prediction error. Overall, total error for these top equations ranged from 2.44 to 2.59 kg. However, based on observed trends, this error was of lower magnitude with the younger and lighter subjects and of higher magnitude with the older and heavier subjects. We conclude that these equations could be used singularly or collectively to determine FFB, and a minimal weight could then be derived and assigned to a scholastic wrestler.

Wrestlers' minimal weight: anthropometry, bioimpedance, and hydrostatic weighing compared

The need for accurate assessment of minimal wrestling weight among interscholastic wrestlers has been well documented. Previous research has demonstrated the validity of anthropometric methods for this purpose, but little research has examined the validity of bioelectrical impedance (BIA) measurements. Comparisons between BIA systems has received limited attention. With these two objectives, we compared the prediction of minimal weight (MW) among 57 interscholastic wrestlers using three anthropometric methods (skinfolds (SF) and two skeletal dimensions equations) and three BIA systems (Berkeley Medical Research (BMR), RJL, and Valhalla (VAL]. All methods showed high correlations (r values greater than 0.92) with hydrostatic weighting (HW) and between methods (r values greater than 0.90). The standard errors of estimate (SEE) were relatively small for all methods, especially for SF and the three BIA systems (SEE less than 0.70 kg). The total errors of prediction (E) for RJL and VAL (E = 4.4 and 3.9 kg) were significantly larger than observed nonsignificant BMR and SF values (E = 2.3 and 1.8 kg, respectively). Significant mean differences were observed between HW, RJL, VAL, and the two skeletal dimensions equations, but nonsignificant differences were observed between HW, BMR, and SF. BMR differed significantly from the RJL and VAL systems. The results suggest that RJL and VAL have potential application for this subpopulation. Prediction equation refinement with the addition of selected anthropometric measurement or moderating variables may enhance their utility. However, within the scope of our study, SF and BMR BIA appear to be the most valid methods for determining MW in interscholastic wrestlers.

Siblings as change agents for promoting the functional status of children with cerebral palsy

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a four-month intervention program in which 31 siblings of 15 children with cerebral palsy were taught about cerebral palsy and what they could do to encourage their brother or sister to be more independent. The teaching was reinforced by home visits to develop individual plans for the children with cerebral palsy, and sibling group meetings were held to discuss progress and to provide support. Following this intervention, the children with cerebral palsy had significantly increased range of motion of the shoulder, elbow and wrist. There were also improvements in ambulation, personal hygiene, dressing and feeding. These findings indicate that siblings should be involved in the plant of care for children with disability, since they can be important teachers, rôle models and agents of change.

Eating behaviors, weight loss methods, and nutrition practices among high school wrestlers

Wrestlers lose weight frequently, using rapid weight reduction methods in order to qualify for a certain weight classification. Under these conditions, the potential for developing eating disorders seems apparent. A questionnaire was used to evaluate binge eating and bulimic behaviors, nutrition practices, and weight loss methods in 716 wrestlers. Subjects lost 4.0 kg, on average, to certify, and cycled (lost and regained) 2.3 kg weekly. Two-thirds gained weight in the postseason. The most frequently used weight loss methods included increased exercise, food restriction, gradual dieting, and heated wrestling rooms. Subjects relied primarily on coaches and fellow wrestlers for sources of weight management. Using symptom severity levels by Hawkins and Clement (1980) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.; DSM-III; American Psychiatric Association, 1980) criteria, 2.8% of subjects were classified as bulimic; 1.4% using DSM-III-R (3rd ed.; rev; American Psychiatric Association, 1987); and 1.4% met both DSM-III and DSM-III-R. There were significant differences between the diagnostic (DG) and nondiagnostic groups (NDG) in weight lost to certify, weekly weight fluctuation, postseason weight gain, and severity of binge eating. The DG used fasting, food and fluid restriction, dehydration methods, and laxatives significantly more often to promote weight loss. They also experienced significantly more negative feelings during and following binging. Implications for nursing research and clinical practice are also discussed.

Human intestinal water absorption: direct vs. indirect measurements

Distilled water, a carbohydrate-electrolyte (CE; 4% sucrose, 2% glucose, 17.2 meq/l NaCl, and 2.8 meq/l KCl) solution, or a 10% glucose solution, all containing the nonabsorbed indicator polyethylene glycol (PEG) and deuterium oxide (D2O, 30 ppm), were infused (15 ml/min) into the duodenojejunum of seven men by using the triple lumen technique. Net water absorption was determined directly from the change in PEG concentration and was calculated from plasma D2O derived from D2O in the perfusion solutions. The protocol included a 45-min equilibration period followed by a 90-min test period. Intestinal samples were drawn at 10-min intervals from 15 to 45 min and at 15-min intervals thereafter. Blood was drawn at 45, 50, 55, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, and 135 min. Intestinal samples were analyzed for D2O, Na+, K+, osmolality, PEG, and glucose; blood was analyzed for D2O. Results (+/- SE; positive values secretion, negative values absorption) showed net fluid absorption from distilled water (-9.40 +/- 1.28 ml.h-1.cm-1) and the CE (-13.30 +/- 1.22 ml.h-1.cm-1) solution, but net secretion (4.40 +/- 1.25 ml.h-1.cm-1) from the 10% glucose solution. All values were significantly (P less than 0.05) different from each other. Perfusing the CE solution caused net Na+ and K+ absorption, whereas perfusing the 10% dextrose solution caused net electrolyte secretion. Rates of D2O accumulation in the plasma were independent of the solutions perfused.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Risk factors associated with pressure ulcers in the pediatric patient following open--heart surgery

From a retrospective chart audit conducted on 59 infants and children who had survived open-heart surgery, 16.9% were found to have developed ulcers on the occipital region of their scalps during the postoperative period. Four risk factors were identified: age, type of congenital heart defect, length of time intubated, and length of stay in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). A protocol designed to decrease the amount of pressure and shearing force applied to the occipital region of these patients postoperatively was implemented. A dramatic decline to 4.8% in the incidence of pressure ulcers was noted after implementation of the protocol.

Metabolic effects of repeated weight loss and regain in adolescent wrestlers

This study examined resting metabolic rate in adolescent wrestlers to test the hypothesis that repeated cycles of weight loss and regain would be associated with reduced energy requirements. Energy restriction lowers resting metabolic rate in normal-weight and obese persons. Repeated cycles of weight loss and regain can increase food efficiency, defined as the degree of weight change per unit of food intake, in animals. Many wrestlers lose weight repeatedly as they "cut weight" for matches. This cycle of weight loss and regain may affect their resting metabolism. Twenty-seven wrestlers were classified as cyclers or non-cyclers based on their weight loss history. Resting metabolic rate was measured using indirect calorimetry and body composition was evaluated using six skinfolds. Cyclers and noncyclers did not differ in age, weight, height, surface area, lean body mass, or percent body fat. Cyclers had a significantly lower mean resting metabolic rate than noncyclers (154.6 vs 177.2 kJ/m2/h) (4.6 vs 5.5 kJ per kilogram of lean body mass per hour). There was a 14% difference between the cyclers and the noncyclers in resting energy expenditure (6631.8 vs 7702.8 kJ/d). Weight cycling in wrestlers appears to be associated with a lowered resting metabolic rate.

Iowa wrestling study: cross-validation of the Tcheng-Tipton minimal weight prediction formulas for high school wrestlers

Previous research by Tcheng and Tipton developed two prediction equations appropriate for the estimation of minimal weight for high school wrestlers. The purpose of this investigation was to cross-validate these equations using densitometric estimates of minimal weight. Skeletal dimension measurements and hydrostatic weighing were completed on 220 Iowa high school wrestlers at various times in and out of season. High concurrent validity (r = 0.93) and small residual errors (less than 0.33 kg) were observed when compared to densitometric estimates. Regression weights were of similar magnitude to those from the previous study. Two new prediction models were tested. Model II enhanced the multiple R over previous equations to 0.962 and decreased the SEE by 25% (0.55 kg). The equation was: Minimal Weight (lbs) = 0.49 x Current Weight (lbs) + 1.65 x Height (inches) + 1.81 x Chest Diameter (cm) + 6.70 x Right Wrist Diameter (cm) + 1.35 x Chest Depth (cm) - 156.56. It was concluded that the Tcheng-Tipton equations or the new models could be used as valid indicators of a minimal weight for scholastic wrestlers.

Responses of SHR to combinations of chemical sympathectomy, adrenal demedullation, and training

The single and combined influences of exercise training, chemical sympathectomy (SYMX), and surgical adrenal demedullation (D) were examined in four separate spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) groups. SYMX was accomplished by subcutaneous injections of antinerve growth factor (ANGF) over a 5-day period after birth followed by 20 separate injections of guanethidine sulfate during a 27-day period. Measurements of urine, plasma, or tissue levels of catecholamines indicated that these experimental procedures were effective. The animals were exercise trained (T) for 10 wk or longer at 40-60% of their VO2max capacity, and all T groups exhibited longer run times or higher muscle cytochrome oxidase activity; however, only the SHR + T subgroup had a significantly higher VO2max value than its control (NT). Training lowered resting systolic blood pressure (SBP) in the SHR subgroup but normalization of SBP occurred only with SYMX. Interestingly, only the SYMX + T subgroup with intact adrenal glands also had lower SBP values than the NT. The SHR + T and SYMX + T subgroups but not the SYMX + D + T had less cardiac acceleration after ip injections of atropine than their controls. Heavier heart weights were observed only in the SHR + T subgroup; SYMX was associated with lighter heart weights regardless of whether the rats had been T or D. These collective findings demonstrated again the importance of the sympathetic nervous system to an exercise response, suggesting that an intact adrenal medulla was essential for SHR groups to achieve many of the adaptations associated with training.

Maximum oxygen consumption of rats and its changes with various experimental procedures

A ten-stage treadmill test was developed and standardized to secure the VO2max of male and female rats assigned to various cross-sectional and longitudinal experimental groups. Repeated measurements indicated that the test procedure was reliable and could be used for research purposes. When the test was used with different strains, the untrained Sprague-Dawley rats had significantly higher VO2max values than animals of the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) or the Okamoto-Aoki (SHR) strains. Exercise schedules were evaluated that were similar to those previously used by various investigators and it was found that most were exercising their rats at levels exceeding 75% VO2max. After 6--10 wk of chronic exercise, significant increases in VO2max occurred that ranged between 12 and 26%. Longitudinal studies (1 yr) with hypertensive (SHR) rats revealed that it was more desirable to logarithmically evaluate the relationship between VO2max and body mass than by the conventional method of ml . kg-1 . min-1. When this approach was used with SHR animals, the VO2max differences between the sexes were not apparent until the animals were 1 yr of age. On the other hand, training by male SHR rats caused significant increases in VO2max regardless of the method used to express the results. It is recommended that future studies designed to elucidate exercise mechanisms in rats should include a standardized VO2max test.